Batteries with porous components

ABSTRACT

Approaches are described for producing porous, polymer electrodes with good characteristics for incorporation into polymer batteries. Two preferred processes are presented. The polymer electrodes can be subjected to additional processing to increase their porosity and electrical conductivity. The polymer electrodes preferably are incorporated into a polymer battery where the components are laminated together.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to batteries and polymeric electrodes.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

In an increasingly mobile and technologically advanced society,batteries are playing an ever more important role. The importance ofrechargeable, i.e., secondary, batteries is growing especially quicklydue to the use of cellular phones, portable computers and the like.Along with the increased use of batteries, demand is growing forbatteries with improved performance capability such as longer use on asingle charge. Since batteries are typically used for mobile uses, sizeand weight considerations are significant.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In a first aspect, the invention features an article for use in abattery including a laminate, the laminate including:

(a) a porous, polymeric separator disposed between a first polymericelectrode and a second polymeric electrode, at least one of theelectrodes comprising a porous polymer matrix, where at least one of theelectrodes has a resistivity from about 200 ohm-cm to about 0.1 ohm-cm;and

(b) a lithium salt electrolyte.

Both the first polymeric electrode and the second polymeric electrodecan comprise porous polymer matrices. The porous polymer matrix cancomprise polypropylene, polyethylene or polyvinylidene fluoride. Theporous polymer matrix can comprise a thermoplastic polymer, electricallyconductive particles and redox active particles, where the redox activeparticles and the electrically conductive particles are chemicallydistinct. The porous polymer matrix can comprise a polyolefin. Theelectrolyte can includes a liquid composition or a gel composition.

Generally, one of the electrodes includes a cathode active material andthe other of the electrodes includes an anode active material. At leastone of the polymeric electrodes preferably includes between about 2percent and about 12 percent by weight electrically conductiveparticles. At least one of the electrodes preferably comprises a porouspolymer having a distribution of pore sizes between about 0.01μ andabout 5μ when measured by mercury porosimetry. The article can furtherinclude a pair of current collectors with one of the current collectorsin electrical contact with each of the electrodes.

In another aspect the invention features a method of producing a batterycomponent comprising laminating together a pair of polymer electrodesand a polymer separator such that the polymer separator is disposedbetween the electrodes, at least one element of the polymer electrodescomprising a porous polymer matrix. The polymer separator can comprise aporous polymer element. One of the electrodes preferably includes alithium ion-cathode active material and the other of the electrodespreferably includes a lithium ion-anode active material. The electrodescan include a polyolefin. The lamination can involve heat lamination,pressure lamination, coextrusion, solvent lamination and mixturesthereof.

In another aspect the invention features a porous, polymer electrodeincluding a polymeric compound and from about 2 percent to about 15percent by weight of conducting particles, the electrode having a voidvolume from about 20 percent to about 60 percent, and a maximum poresize of 5 microns. The porous, polymer electrode can include a lithiumion-active material. The porous, polymer electrode can include greaterthan about 60 percent lithium ion-cathode active material or greaterthan about 60 percent lithium ion-anode active material. The porous,polymer electrode can further include a conductive current collectorembedded in the porous, polymer composition.

In another aspect the invention features a porous, polymer cathodeincluding:

(a) a polymeric compound;

(b) between about 60 percent and about 94 percent by weight electricallyinsulating or semiconducting particles, which comprise a cathode-activematerial; and

(c) between about 1 percent and about 15 percent by weight electricallyconductive particles.

The electrically conductive particles can include electricallyconductive carbon. The porous, polymer cathode can include between about5 percent and about 12 percent by weight electrically conductiveparticles.

In another aspect, the invention features an isolated porous, polymeranode including:

(a) a polymeric compound;

(b) between about 60 percent and about 94 percent by weight particles,which comprise an anode active material; and

(c) greater than about 1 percent by weight electrically conductiveparticles, chemically distinct from the anode active material.

The electrically conductive particles can include nongraphitic carbon.The anode active material can include graphite.

In another aspect, the invention features a method of producing aporous, polymer electrode comprising cooling a composition thatcomprises a melt blend of a polymer, redox active particles,electrically conductive particles chemically distinct from the redoxactive particles and a solubilizing amount of a diluent to induce aphase transition, the polymer comprising polyethylene, polypropylene,poly(tetrafluoroethylene-co-perfluoro-(propyl vinyl ether)) orpolyvinylidine fluoride. The electrically conductive particles includeelectrically conductive carbon. The method can further include the stepof removing the diluent.

In the method, the porous, polymer electrode upon removing the diluentcan include between about 1 percent by weight and about 12 percent byweight electrically conductive particles. Similarly, the porous, polymerelectrode upon removing the diluent can include between about 60 percentand 94 percent by weight redox active particles. The cooling step can beperformed in the presence of a conductive current collector such thatthe current collector is embedded in the porous, polymer electrode.

In another aspect, the invention features a method of producing aporous, polymer article comprising heating a porous, polymer film to atemperature within about 20° C. of the melting point of the polymer fora time sufficient to increase the bubble point without substantiallyaltering structural integrity of the film, where the film includes atleast about 25 percent by volume particles such as carbonaceous orsilicaceous material. The method can further including calendering theporous, polymer film to reduce void volume.

In another aspect the invention features a method of producing a porouspolymer electrode including the steps of:

a) forming a blend of lubricant, a swellable-fibril-forming polymer andredox active particles, the blend having a cohesive consistency and thelubricant being present in an amount exceeding the adsorptive andabsorptive capacity of particulates by at least 3 weight percent;

b) intensively mixing the blend at a temperature and for a timesufficient to cause initial fibrillation of the polymer; and

c) biaxially calendering the mass between gaps in calendering rollsmaintained at a temperature and for a time to cause additionalfibrillation of the polymer, the calendering step being repeated to forma self-supporting tear resistant sheet.

In another aspect, the invention features a conductive adhesivecomprising a polyethylene latex and carbon particles.

Preferred porous electrodes are capable of handling a high currentdensity, a high conductivity and a high loading of active material whilemaintaining good mechanical strength. Preferred batteries are producedusing preferred electrodes laminated on either side of a polymerseparator. Batteries produced from preferred porous electrodes arecapable of producing a high current. Preferred batteries also have ahigh capacity for a given size and weight with respect to total currentproduced by the battery on a single charge. Rechargeable batteries canbe produced from the preferred electrodes by incorporating appropriateactive materials into the battery.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a fragmentary, perspective view of an embodiment of a batteryof the invention.

FIG. 2 is a temperature-composition plot for a thermoplasticpolymer/diluent system used in the TIPT process. The dashed line is atemperature-concentration plot for a constant rate of cooling.

FIG. 3 is a front view of a current collector with a metal grid.

FIG. 4 is a plot of average capacity in milliamp hours/gram (mAh/g) as afunction of battery cycle for coin cells produced having a cathode withhigh density polyethylene. Some of the cathodes had additional treatmentwith heat and/or calendering.

FIG. 5 is a plot of average capacity (mAh/g) as a function of batterycycle for coin cells produced having a cathode with ultra high molecularweight polyethylene.

FIG. 6 is a plot of average capacity (mAh/g) as a function of batterycycle for coin cells produced having a cathode with polypropylene. Someof the cathodes had additional treatment with heat and/or calendering.

FIG. 7 is a plot of average capacity (mAh/g) as a function of batterycycle for coin cells produced having a cathode with polyvinylidenefluoride. Some of the cathodes had additional treatment with heat.

FIG. 8 is plot of average capacity (mAh/g) as a function of batterycycle for coin cells produced having an anode with high densitypolyethylene. Some of the anodes had additional treatment with heatand/or calendering.

FIG. 9 is a plot of average capacity (mAh/g) as a function of batterycycle for coin cells produced having an anode with ultra high molecularweight polyethylene. Some of the anodes had additional treatment withheat and/or calendering.

FIG. 10 is a plot of average capacity (mAh/g) as a function of batterycycle for coin cells produced having an anode with polypropylene. Someof the anodes had additional treatment with heat and/or calendering.

FIG. 11 is a plot of average capacity (mAh/g) as a function of batterycycle for coin cells produced having an anode with polyvinylidenefluoride. Some of the anodes had additional treatment with heat.

FIG. 12 is a plot of mAh as a function of battery cycle for three cellsproduced with TIPT electrodes.

FIG. 13A is an SEM photograph of a cross section of a HDPE, TIPT anodethat was calendered following extraction.

FIG. 13B is an SEM photograph of a cross section of an equivalent anodeas shown in FIG. 13A that was subject to heat treatment followingextraction.

FIG. 13C is an SEM photograph of a cross section of an equivalent anodeas shown in FIG. 13A that was subject to both heat treatment andcalendering following extraction.

FIG. 14A is an SEM photograph of a cross section of a HDPE, TIPT anodethat received no additional processing following extraction.

FIG. 14B is an SEM photograph of a cross section of an equivalent anodeas shown in FIG. 14A that was subject to calendering followingextraction.

FIG. 14C is an SEM photograph of a cross section of an equivalent anodeas shown in FIG. 14A that was subject to both heat treatment andcalendering following extraction.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

A. Batters Structure

Referring to FIG. 1, battery 100 has an anode 102 and a cathode 104 onopposite sides of a separator 106. Current collectors 108, 110 areattached to the anode 102 and cathode 104, respectively. Currentcollectors provide electrical contact of external elements with thebattery. The shape and size of the components of the battery can varyover a wide range.

The reduction/oxidation (redox) chemical reactions that power the celloccur at the electrodes, i.e. anode and cathode. The electrodes areelectrically conductive to provide electrical contact with the currentcollectors. The separator prevents contact of anode active compositionsand cathode active compositions. It is important to prevent even minimalcontact of reactants, which could lead to electrical shorts resulting indegradation of cell performance.

In alternative embodiments, a plurality of anodes, cathodes and/orseparators can be combined into a single cell, for example, two cathodesand two separators surrounding a single anode. Also, a plurality ofcurrent collectors can be used for each electrode. A plurality of cellscan be combined either in parallel or in series to increase capacity orvoltage.

The batteries described here use at least one porous polymer component.The porous component can be the anode, cathode or separator. Inpreferred embodiments, more than one component is porous. Morepreferably, both of the electrodes and the separator are porous.Generally, the anode/separator/cathode structures are flexible.

Preferred porous components are made using fabrication methodsincorporating appropriately selected materials, as described below.These porous components provide high transport rates of ions through thecell. At the same time, they provide a strong, yet flexible materialthat can be conveniently fabricated into the battery. Furthermore,preferred porous electrodes can have both a very high loading ofelectroactive material and good electrical conductivity, which is neededto interface well with current collectors.

To complete the battery, an electrolyte is needed. The electrolytesupports ionic conduction through the battery to maintain electricalneutrality in view of the charge flow between the electrodes. Thepreferred form of the constituents of the electrolyte depends on thenature of the reactions at the electrodes.

The electrolyte can take a variety of forms or combination of forms. Forexample, a solid electrolyte is a polymer material that transports ions.A solid electrolyte also can function as the separator. A solidelectrolyte used alone would not take full advantage of the porositywith respect to any of the components, so other forms of electrolytewould be preferred, either alone or combined with a solid electrolyte.To the extent that the polymer is swelled by a plasticizer, theelectrolyte can be a gel. See, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,418,091(vinylidene copolymers), U.S. Pat. No. 4,830,939 (acrylate polymers) andU.S. Pat. No. 4,303,748 (acrylated ethylene oxide and propylene oxidepolymers), each of which is incorporated herein by reference. In otherembodiments, the electrolyte is a liquid.

The various components can be adapted to construct batteries based on avariety of different electrochemical-redox reactions. A half reactiontakes place at each electrode. Each redox reaction defines suitableanode active compositions, cathode active compositions and electrolytes.

The components should be selected to be compatible with the reactants.For example, for a lead acid battery, polymers should be selected to beresistant to the corrosive environment. Corrosion resistant polymersinclude polyvinylidene fluoride,poly(tetrafluoroethylene-co-perfluoro-(propyl vinyl ether)),polypropylene, polyethylene and ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene.

The batteries of the invention can use essentially any redox reactions,for example, those used in conventional lead acid batteries and alkalinebatteries. Of particular interest are redox reactions involving lithiumions. Reactions involving lithium ions provide particularly usefulvoltages, reactions appropriate for a rechargeable battery and a highcapacity per weight. Other suitable redox reactions can be based onmultivalent ions such as divalent alkali earth ions as described in U.S.Pat. No. 5,601,949, incorporated herein by reference.

Suitable anode active materials for lithium ion cells include, forexample, graphitic carbon, amorphous carbon, TiS₂, LiTiS₂, WO₂,Li_(x)Fe(Fe₂) O₄, lithium compound of Fe₂O₃, other iron oxides, Nb₂O₅,amorphous V₂O₅, and other chalcogenides having their basic crystalstructure changed by intercalation of a lithium ion. Other preferredanode active materials include materials containing one or more types ofatoms from groups IIIB, IVB or VB of the period table, as described inCanadian Patent Application 2,134,052.

Suitable cathode active materials for lithium ion batteries include, forexample, LiCoO₂, LiNiO₂, LiMn₂O₄ and LiCo_(x)Ni_(1-x)O₂. Appropriateelectrolytes include, for example, lithium salts of PF₆, BF₄, ClO₄,AsF₆, N(SO₂C₂F.)₂ at on the order of 1 molar concentrations in solventssuch as ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate,diethyl carbonate, and diethoxy ethane.

B. Electrodes

Each electrode includes a polymer and a redox active composition. Theelectrodes, in general, can be either porous or nonporous. Appropriatesolid electrodes are described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 5,460,904.Solid electrodes absorb ions as needed to support the progressingreactions.

Preferred electrodes are porous to increase the effective surface areacontacting the electrolyte. The enlarged surface area increases thecurrent density that can be produced by the electrode.

It is preferred to have pores with diameters generally from about 0.01microns to about 1 micron. Correspondingly, the porous electrodespreferably have a void volume from about 10 percent to about 50 percentand more preferably from about 25 percent to about 35 percent. Voidvolume as a percent is calculated by the following formula:

Void Volume=[1−AD/MD]×100.

MD is the average density of the materials, based on the relativeweights of the components in the electrode and their density. AD is theactual, measured density of the electrode.

Because of the improved physical and electrical properties of the porouselectrodes produced using the methods described below, thickerelectrodes can be used while retaining good performance. Thickerelectrodes provide for the use of relatively less separator materialwhile obtaining the same battery capacity and appropriate currents. Theelectrodes preferably have a thickness between about 0.001 inch (1 mils)and about 0.050 inch (50 mils) thick and more preferably between about0.005 inch (5 mils) and about 0.025 inch (25 mils). The electrodes canbe take on any size and shape appropriate to construct the desiredbattery.

The redox active compositions generally are particles dispersed in thepolymer matrix. Preferred polymers are inert with respect to thechemical reactants within the cell. Preferred Li⁺¹ ion batteries involvecompounds that can react with polymers containing active groups.Therefore, preferred polymers for lithium ion batteries involvepolymers, such as polyolefins, with no significant functional groups.Preferred polymers include, for example, polyethylene,polytetrafluoroethylene, poly(tetrafluoroethylene-co-perfluoro-(propylvinyl ether)), polypropylene, polyvinylidine fluoride and copolymers ofthese materials.

Polymer electrodes preferably have a high loading of particles. Thepolymer generally forms a matrix joining together the particles. Theelectrodes preferably contain between about 50 percent and about 98percent by weight, and more preferably between about 75 percent andabout 95 percent by weight particles. Preferably these particles have asize less than 100 microns, and more preferably between 0.1 microns and10 microns.

A majority of the particles generally are active materials in the redoxreactions. Appropriate cathode active and anode active materials aredescribed above with respect to the different reduction and oxidationreactions suitable for the battery.

The redox active particles in the electrodes may or may not beelectrically conductive. Since the electrode is conductive, the redoxactive components preferably are conductive, but this may not bepossible or convenient. It generally is preferable or necessary to addnonreactive or weakly reactive conducting particles in addition to theredox active compositions. Preferred conductive particles include carbonparticles such as carbon black, graphite, hard carbon and carbon fibers.

Preferably, these conductive particles are included in quantitiesbetween about 2 percent and about 15 percent, and more preferably forcathodes between about 5 percent and about 12 percent and for anodesbetween about 2 percent and about 10 percent by weight of the electrodecomposition. Because of the desirable structure of the presentelectrodes, relatively small quantities of conductive particles can beused to obtain electrodes with useful values of conductivity.

Preferably, the electrodes have a resistivity from about 200 ohm-cm toabout 0.1 ohm-cm and more preferably from about 50 ohm-cm to about 0.1ohm-cm. Furthermore, the electrodes preferably have Gurley values fromabout 400 sec/50 cc to about 10 sec/50 cc and more preferably from about60 sec/50cc to about 10 sec/50cc.

Two processes for the production of porous electrodes are describednext.

1. TIPT Process

The first process for the production of porous electrodes involves athermally induced phase transition (TIPT). The TIPT process is based onthe use of a polymer that is soluble in a diluent at an elevatedtemperature and insoluble in the diluent at a relatively lowertemperature. The “phase transition” can involve a solid-liquid phaseseparation, a liquid-liquid phase separation or a liquid to a gel phasetransition. The “phase transition” need not involve a discontinuity in athermodynamic variable so that transitions from one phase to anotherthat occur above a triple point or the like are also considered to be“phase transitions”.

Suitable polymers for the TIPT process include thermoplastic polymers,thermosensitive polymers or mixtures of polymers of these types, withthe mixed polymers being compatible. Thermosensitive polymers such asultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) cannot bemelt-processed directly but can be melt processed in the presence of adiluent or plasticizer that lowers the viscosity sufficiently for meltprocessing. Suitable polymers can be crystalline or amorphous.Representative polymers include high and low density polyethylene,polypropylene, polybutadiene, polyacrylates such aspolymethylmethacrylate, polyvinylidene fluoride,poly(tetrafluoroethylene-co-perfluoro-(propyl vinyl ether)) (sold asTeflon® PFA), and mixtures and copolymers thereof.

Suitable diluents are liquids or solids at room temperature and liquidsat the melting temperature of the polymer. Low molecular weight diluentsare preferred since they can be extracted more readily than highermolecular weight diluents. Low to moderate molecular weight polymers,however, can be used as diluents if the diluent polymer and the matrixpolymer are miscible in the melt state. Compounds with boiling pointsbelow the melting temperature of the polymer can be used as diluents byusing a superatmospheric pressure sufficient to produce a liquid at thepolymer melting temperature.

The compatibility of the diluent with the polymer can be evaluated bymixing the polymer and the diluent while heating to determine whether asingle liquid phase is formed, as indicated generally by existence of aclear homogeneous solution. An appropriate polymer dissolves or forms asingle phase with the diluent at the melting temperature of the polymerbut forms a continuous network on cooling to a temperature below themelting temperature of the polymer. The continuous network is either aseparate phase from the diluent or a gel where the diluent acts as aplasticizer swelling the polymer network. The gel state may beconsidered to be a single phase.

For non-polar polymers, non-polar organic liquids generally arepreferred as a diluent. Similarly, polar organic liquids generally arepreferred with polar polymers. When blends of polymers are used,preferred diluents are compatible with each of the polymers. When thepolymer is a block copolymer, the diluent preferably is compatible witheach polymer block. Blends of two or more liquids can be used as thediluent as long as the polymer is soluble in the liquid blend at themelt temperature of the polymer, and a phase transition with theformation of a polymer network occurs upon cooling.

Various organic compounds are useful as a diluent, including compoundsfrom the following broad classifications: aliphatic acids; aromaticacids; aliphatic alcohols; aromatic alcohols; cyclic alcohols;aldehydes; primary amines; secondary amines; aromatic amines;ethoxylated amines; diamines; amides; esters and diesters such assebacates, phthalates, stearates, adipates and citrates; ethers;ketones; epoxy compounds such as epoxidized vegetable oils; phosphateesters such as tricresyl phosphate; various hydrocarbons such aseicosane, coumarin-idene resins and terpene resins and blends such aspetroleum oil including lubricating oils and fuel oils, hydrocarbonresin and asphalt; and various heterocyclic compounds.

Examples of particular blends of polymers and diluents that are usefulin preparing suitable porous materials include polypropylene withaliphatic hydrocarbons such as mineral oil and mineral spirits, waxes,esters such as dioctyl phthalate and dibutyl phthalate, or ethers suchas dibenzyl ether; ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene with mineraloil or waxes; high density polyethylene with aliphatic hydrocarbons suchas mineral oil, aliphatic ketones such as methyl nonyl ketone, or anester such as dioctyl phthalate; low density polyethylene with aliphaticacids such as decanoic acid and oleic acid, or primary alcohols such asdecyl alcohol; polypropylene-polyethylene copolymer with mineral oil;and polyvinylidene fluoride with dibutyl phthalate.

A particular combination of polymer and diluent may include more thanone polymer and/or more than one diluent. Mineral oil and mineralspirits are each examples of a diluent being a mixture of compoundssince they are typically blends of hydrocarbon liquids. Similarly,blends of liquids and solids also can serve as the diluent.

For thermoplastic polymers, the melt blend preferably includes fromabout 10 parts to about 80 parts by weight of the thermoplastic polymerand from about 90 to about 20 parts by weight of the diluent.Appropriate relative amounts of thermoplastic polymer and diluent varywith each combination. For UHMWPE polymers, an example of athermosensitive polymer, the melt blend preferably includes from about 2parts to about 50 parts of polymer and from about 98 parts to about 50parts by weight of diluent.

For crystalline polymers the polymer concentration that can be used fora solid-liquid or liquid-liquid phase separation in a given system canbe determined by reference to the temperature-composition graph for apolymer-liquid system, an example of which is set forth in FIG. 2. Suchgraphs can be readily developed as described in Smolders, van Aartsenand Steenbergen, Kolloid-Zu Z. Polymere, 243:14-20 (1971). Phasetransitions can be located by determining the cloud point for a seriesof compositions at a sufficiently slow rate of cooling that the systemstays near equilibrium. Referring to FIG. 2, the portion of the curvefrom gamma to alpha represents the thermodynamic equilibriumliquid-liquid phase separation. T_(ucst) represents the upper criticaltemperature of the systems. The portion of the curve from alpha to betarepresents the equilibrium liquid-solid phase separation. The diluentcan be chosen such that the crystallizable polymer and diluent systemexhibits liquid-solid phase separation or liquid-liquid phase separationover the entire composition range.

Φ_(ucst) represents the critical composition. To form the desired porouspolymers, the polymer concentration utilized for a particular systempreferably is greater than Φ_(ucst). If the polymer concentration isbelow the critical concentration (Φ_(ucst)), the phase separation, uponcooling, generally forms a continuous phase of diluent with dispersed orweakly associated polymer particles and the resulting polymercomposition typically lacks sufficient strength to be useful.

For a given cooling rate, the temperature-concentration curve of thediluent-polymer blend can be determined by Differential ScanningCalorimetry (DSC), for example, as indicated by the dashed line of FIG.2 for one rate of cooling. The resulting plot of polymer concentrationversus melting temperature shows the concentration ranges that result insolid-liquid and in liquid-liquid phase separation. From this curve, theconcentration ranges for the polymer and the liquid that yield thedesired porous structure at the given cooling rate can be estimated. Thedetermination of the melting temperature-concentration curve by DSC isan alternative to determination of the equilibriumtemperature-composition curve for a crystalline polymer.

The above discussion of phase diagrams is applicable to amorphouspolymers except that only liquid-liquid phase separations occur. In thiscase, a cloud point generally is indicative of the particular phasetransition. Similarly, for gel forming polymers the phase transition ofrelevance involves a transition from a homogeneous solution to a gel. Inthe case of gel forming polymers, an abrupt increase in viscosity isindicative of a phase transition from the melt to the gel, although acloud point may also be observed in some cases.

For many liquid-polymer systems, when the rate of cooling of theliquid-polymer solution is slow, liquid—liquid phase separation occursat substantially the same time as the formation of a plurality of liquiddroplets of substantially uniform size. When the cooling rate is slowenough such that the droplets form, the resultant porous polymer has acellular microstructure. In contrast, if the rate of cooling of theliquid-polymer solution is rapid, the solution undergoes a spontaneoustransformation called spinodal decomposition, and the resultant porouspolymer has a fine, open-cellular structure with a qualitativelydifferent morphology and physical properties than obtained followingdroplet formation. The fine porous structure is referred to as a lacystructure.

In the case of ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE), thearticle obtained upon cooling may exist in a gel state. The nature ofthe underlying polymer network following cooling is affected by the rateof cooling. Fast cooling tends to promote mostly gel formation whileslow cooling tends to allow more crystallization to occur. Gel formationtends to dominate for diluent/UHMWPE weight ratios greater than about80:20, whereas crystallization dominates increasingly for diluent/UHMWPEweight ratios less than about 80:20. The polymer network in the case ofhighly particle filled UHMWPE as determined by SEM after extraction ofthe diluent tends to be a fairly dense structure having fine pores. Thestructure of the network can be changed by the extraction process. Thehighly particle filled UHMWPE films produced by the TIPT process areporous after extraction without the need for restraint during eitherextraction or stretching.

When liquid-solid phase separation occurs, the material has an internalstructure characterized by a multiplicity of spaced, randomly disposed,non-uniform shaped, particles of polymer. Adjacent particles throughoutthe material are separated from one another to provide the material witha network of interconnected micropores and being connected to each otherby a plurality of fibrils consisting of the polymer. The fibrilselongate upon orientation providing greater spacing between the polymerparticles and increased porosity. Again, the filled particles reside inor are attached to the thermoplastic polymer of the formed structure.

If desired, the polymer can be blended with certain additives that aresoluble or dispersable in the polymer. The quantity of these additivesshould be low enough that the additives do not interfere with theformation of the porous material. When used, the additives are generallyless than about 10 percent by weight of the polymer component andpreferably less than about 2 percent by weight. Typical additivesinclude, for example, antioxidants and viscosity modifiers.

The melt blend further includes particulates for incorporation into theelectrode. For all of these highly-filled compositions regardless of thetype of phase transition involved, porous films can be obtained byextraction of the diluent without physical restraint during eitherextraction or stretching of the film. In some cases, however, restraintof the film during extraction may result in larger bubble points andsmaller Gurley values than for the same film extracted withoutrestraint. The particulates can be a mixture of materials. For theproduction of electrodes, the particulates include redox activematerials and/or conductive particles. The particles preferably form adispersion in the diluent and are insoluble in the melt blend of polymerand diluent. The appropriate types of materials have been describedabove, as long as the materials are appropriately compatible with thepolymer and diluent.

Some of these particulates, especially small sized carbon particles,serve as a nucleating agent. The nucleating agent can be a solid or agel at the crystallization temperature of the polymer. A wide variety ofsolid materials can be used as nucleating agents, depending on theirsize, crystal form, and other physical parameters. Smaller solidparticles, e.g., in the submicron range, tend to function better asnucleating agents. Preferably, nucleating agents range in size fromabout 0.01 microns to about 0.1 microns and more preferably from about0.01 microns to about 0.05 microns. Certain polymers such aspolypropylene perform better in the TIPT process with a nucleating agentpresent.

In the presence of a nucleating agent, the number of sites at whichcrystallization is initiated increases relative to the number in theabsence of the nucleating agent. The resultant polymer particles have areduced size. Moreover, the number of fibrils connecting the polymerparticles per unit volume is increased. The tensile strength of thematerial is increased relative to porous films made without thenucleating agent.

In the porous structures, preferably the particles are uniformlydistributed in the polymer matrix, and are firmly held in the polymericstructure such that they do not wash out on subsequent extraction of thediluent using solvent. The average particle spacing depends on thevolume loading of the particles in the polymer, and preferably is suchthat, in the case of conductive particles, the particles are insufficiently close proximity to sustain electrical conductivity.Processing of particles in the polymer matrix, particularlyconductive-carbon particles, requires care, since undermixing can resultin poor dispersion, characterized by lumps of particles, and overmixingcan cause the agglomerates to disperse completely in the polymer.Conductive particle proximity is important for high levels ofconductivity. Therefore, both extremes of mixing are unfavorable for theconduction properties of the mixture.

The melt blend can contain as high as about 40 percent to about 50percent by volume dispersed particles. By combining high diluentconcentrations with high volume percent of particles, a high weightpercent of particles can be achieved after the diluent has beenextracted from the phase separated polymer composition. Preferably, theextracted and dried polymer material includes from about 50 percent toabout 98 percent particles and more preferably from about 70 percent toabout 98 percent by weight particles and even more preferably from about90 percent to about 98 percent by weight particles.

The diluent eventually is removed from the material to yield aparticle-filled, substantially liquid-free, porous polymeric material.The diluent may be removed by, for example, solvent extraction,sublimation, volatilization, or any other convenient method. Followingremoval of the diluent, the particle phase preferably remains entrappedto a level of at least about 90 percent, more preferably 95 percent andmost preferably 99 percent, in the porous structure. In other words, fewof the particulates are removed when the diluent is eliminated, asevidenced for example by lack of particulates in the solvent washingvessel.

A particular approach for implementing the TIPT process is described.Variations on the described approach can be made based on the teachingsherein. In the first step of one embodiment the TIPT process, theparticles are disposed beneath the surface of the diluent, and entrappedair is removed from the mixture. A standard high speed shear mixeroperating at several hundred RPM to several thousand RPM for aboutseveral minutes to about 60 minutes can be used to facilitate this step.Appropriate high speed shear mixers are made, for example, by PremierMill Corp., Reading, Pa. and by Shar Inc., Fort Wayne, Ind.

If more dispersion is needed following the first mixing step, it can beachieved through milling of the dispersion before pumping the dispersioninto the extruder, or through introduction of dispersing elements intothe extruder. For shear sensitive polymers such as UHMWPE, mostparticulate dispersion preferably is done prior to pumping thedispersion into the extruder to minimize the shear needed in theextruder. Alternatively, the dispersion of particulates into the diluentcan be done in the first zone of an extruder to disperse the particulateand the UHMWPE added in a later zone to avoid applying excessive shearto the UHMWPE.

The degree of preferred dispersion can be determined by inspection ofthe final electrode film, by determination of its conductivity and byevaluation in a half-cell. The surface should be generally smooth anduniform with no protrusions through the surface large enough to be seenby eye. Insufficient dispersion of particulates can result in filmshaving rough surfaces with a texture of fine to course sandpaper. Incertain instances, no milling is needed since the shear used simply towet out the particulates results in sufficient dispersion. Appropriateselection of components such as the diluent and the initial particlescan greatly facilitate the dispersing step.

When additional dispersion is required or desired, the diluentcontaining the particulate material can be processed in a mill. Usefulmills include, for example, attritors, horizontal bead mills and sandmills. Typically, a single pass through a horizontal bead mill at amoderate through-put rate (i.e., moderate relative to the maximumthrough-put rate of the mill) is sufficient. When significant amounts ofdispersion are required, milling times for recirculation of dispersionthrough the mill of less than an hour may be sufficient in some cases,while milling times of at least about 4 to about 8 hours may be neededin other cases.

Preferably, particle/diluent milling is carried out at relatively highviscosity where the milling process is more effective. An example of anappropriate instrument for processing small batches is an attritor Model6TSG-1-4, manufactured by Igarachi Kikai Seizo Co. Ltd., Tokyo, Japan.This attritor has a water-cooled jacket with about a 1 liter volumewhich operates at about 1500 RPM with a capacity to process about 500 ccof material.

For larger batches, appropriate instrument include, for example, a 0.5gallon vertical sand mill manufactured by Schold Machine Co., St.Petersburg, Fla. and a horizontal bead mill from Premier Mill. This beadmill can use up to about 1300 cc of 1.3 mm stainless steel balls asmilling media and operates at peripheral speeds of from about 300 toabout 3300 ft/min. The material is fed continuously using a gear pump toprovide a processing rate of about 0.25 to 10 gallons per hour.

Milling reduces agglomerates to smaller agglomerates or primaryparticles but generally does not break down primary particles to smallerparticles. Filtration can be used if a greater number of largerparticles are present than desired. Appropriate filters include, forexample, model C3B4U 3 micron rope wound filter made by BrunswickTechnitics (Timonium, Md.) to remove agglomerated particles or particleslarger than about 3 microns. Filtering results in a more uniform articleand allows metering of the dispersions under pressure by close tolerancegear pumps during extrusion process without frequent breakdowns due tolarge particles clogging the pump.

A dispersant can be added to the mixture of diluent and particles to aidin stabilizing the dispersion of particles in the diluent and inmaintaining the particles as unaggregated. If a dispersant is used, thediluent-particle mixture preferably contains from about 1 percent toabout 100 percent by weight of dispersant relative to the weight of theparticles. The concentration of particles can be determined, forexample, using a Model DMA-4S Mettler/Paar density meter manufactured byMettler-Toledo, Inc., Hightstown, N.J.. The appropriate amount ofdispersant is determined by type of particles and the diluent.

Anionic, cationic and nonionic dispersants can be used. In diluents likemineral oil, examples of useful dispersants include OLOA 1200, asuccinimide lubricating oil additive, available from Chevron ChemicalCo., Houston, Texas, and Hypermer™ LP1 and LP4 available from ICIAmericas, Wilmington, Del. For electrodes containing electroactivecarbon, a dispersant should be selected that does not foul the carbon asevidenced by loss of capacity upon cycling.

The diluent-particle mixture generally is heated to about 150° C. todegas the mixture before pumping the mixture into an extruder. Themixture can be pumped into the extruder with or without cooling themixture to ambient temperature. The polymer is fed typically into thefeed zone of the extruder using a gravimetric or volumetric feeder. (Inan alternative embodiment, at least some of the particles can be addedwith the polymer to the extruder.) For thermoplastic polymers, feed andmelt zone temperatures preferably are selected so that the polymer is atleast partially melted before contacting diluent. If the particles areeasily dispersed, the particles can be fed at a controlled rate into theextruder, and the diluent separately metered into the extruder. Also, avariety of in-line mixers are available that provide for dispersion ofparticulates on a continuous in-line basis from streams of particles andliquids.

Then, a melt blend is formed with the polymer in the extruder. Followingsufficient mixing in the extruder, the melt blend is cast into thedesired form. Typically, since a film is desired, the melt blend isextruded onto a temperature-controlled casting wheel using a drop die. Atwin-screw extruder is preferred.

Following formation of the desired shape of material, the material iscooled, preferably rapidly, to induce the phase transition. Quenchconditions depend on film thickness, extrusion rate, polymercomposition, polymer-to-diluent ratio, and desired film properties.Preferred conditions for a specific film can be readily determined. Forhigher quench temperatures, film strength may be diminished relative tofilms formed at lower quench temperatures. Rapid cooling can beaccomplished by, for example, cooling in sufficiently cold air, coolingby contact on one or more sides with a temperature-controlled castingwheel or immersion of the material in a temperature-controlled liquid.Following quenching, the diluent is removed. If a solvent is used toremove the diluent, remaining solvent is removed by evaporation.

For a given polymer-diluent combination, use of a casting wheel canresult in an asymmetric film. As the casting wheel temperature islowered, it is increasingly likely that the resulting film will beasymmetric. Typically, the side of the film toward the casting wheel hasa “skin” that is denser and has smaller pores. Alternatively, a highercasting wheel temperature relative to the air temperature can result ina denser surface layer on the air side. In general, a lower castingwheel temperature produces a film that is stronger, denser on thecasting wheel side, and has a small bubble point and higher Gurleyvalue.

2. Polymer-Fibrillation (PF) Process

The second preferred process for the formation of porous electrodesinvolves the preparation of a mixture of a fibril-forming polymer, alubricant and insoluble nonswellable particles. Non-swellable particlespreferably swell by less than 50 percent. Following formation of a sheetand removal of the lubricant, a porous composite article remains. Themethod provides for controlling porosity and mean pore size. Theparticles are approximately evenly distributed in the composite and areenmeshed in the fibril forming polymer. This process is adapted from theprocesses outlined in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,153,661, 4,460,642, 5,071,610,5,113,860 and 5,147,539, incorporated herein by reference.

Preferred polymers include halogenated vinyl polymers such aspolytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). Dry powder PTFE such as Teflon™ 6C canbe used as the starting material. Alternatively, the process can bepreformed using a commercially-available aqueous dispersion of PTFEparticles, such as Teflon 30™, Teflon 30b™, and Teflon 42™ (E.I. DuPontde Nemours Chemical Corp., Wilmington, Del.), wherein water acts as alubricant for subsequent processing. The milky-white aqueous suspensionscan have minute PTFE particles ranging in size from about 0.05micrometers to about 1.5 micrometers. The PTFE dispersions generallycontain solids from about 30 percent by weight to about 70 percent withthe major portion of the solids being PTFE particles.

Commercially available PTFE aqueous dispersions may contain otheringredients such as surfactants and stabilizers, which promote continuedsuspension of the PTFE particles. In some applications, it isadvantageous to remove the surfactant, if present, by extraction at adesired point in the process.

The lubricant must be selected such that the polymer is not soluble inthe lubricant. Preferred lubricants include water, organic solvents andmixtures of water and miscible organic solvents that can be convenientlyremoved by washing or drying. The organic solvents include, for example,alcohols, ketones, esters and ethers. Alcohols are especially preferredbecause of their efficacious removability after fabrication of thearticle by solvent extraction or drying. Water-alcohol mixtures can beformed in any proportion, preferably in a ratio from about 4:1 to about1:4, and more preferably in a ratio of roughly about 1:1. Preferredalcohols include C₁ to C₅ alkanols. Other preferred lubricants include,for example, perfluorinated compounds such as Fluorinert (3M, SaintPaul, Minn.) or other similar compositions. Perfluorinated is used toindicate that substantially all of the hydrogen atoms have been replacedby fluorine atoms. Alternative perfluorinated liquids include Galden®and Fomblin® perfluorinated fluids (Ausimont USA, Thorofare, N.J.;Ausimont S.p.A., Montedison Group, Milan, Italy).

Preferred particles have a solubility of less than about 1.0 grams in100 grams of lubricant at the mixing temperature. The particles can bebut do not need to be absorbent or adsorbent with respect to thelubricant. The absorptive or adsorptive capability of the particles withrespect to lubricant preferably is less than about 10 percent by weightand more preferably less than 1 percent. The particles preferably havean average diameter less than about 200 microns, more preferably in therange from about 1.0 microns to about 100.0 microns and more preferablyin the range from about 1.0 microns to about 40 microns. Due to thewetting properties of certain particles including certain carbonparticles, non-aqueous, organic lubricants are preferred when theseparticles are used in large quantities.

The particles can include a mixture of compositions. The particlesgenerally include the redox active materials and the conductivematerials that are added to create the functional properties of theelectrode. Appropriate redox active and conductive materials aredescribed above, as long as the particles are insoluble andnonswellable.

In addition to the redox active and/or conductive particles, the mixturecan include non-swellable property modifiers, which can be soluble inwater. Representative non-swellable property modifiers include coatedparticles, ion exchange particles, calcium carbonate, ammoniumcarbonate, kaolin, sugar, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyester,polyamine, polyurethane, polycarbonate, zeolites, chitin, vermiculite,clay, ceramics, chelating particles and the like. Optional,non-swellable property modifiers can be present in amounts ranging fromabout 0 to about 10 percent by weight of the total mixture andpreferably from about 0.1 to about 1.0 percent by weight.

In addition, the mixture can include water-swellable property modifiers,preferably less than about 25 percent by weight of particulates and morepreferable less than about 10 percent and even more preferably less thanabout 1 percent by weight of particulates. Representative swellableproperty modifiers include starch, chitosan, modified starches such asSephadex™ and Sepharose™ (Pharmacia, Sweden), agarose,polymethacrylates, styrene divinylbenzene copolymers, polyacrylamides,cellulose fibers, casein, zein, crosslinked hide glue, polyamidesoptionally plasticized with glycerine and coated particles, e.g., silicacoated with polyacrylamide.

Small amounts of other useful additives can be added such as chargetransfer agents for overcharge protection and special function additivesincluding, for example, lithium carbonate, which forms carbon dioxide onovercharge helping to activate the pressure vent of the battery.

The weight ratio of insoluble particles to polymer preferably is in therange from about 400:1 to about 4:1. The lubricant preferably is addedin an amount exceeding the absorptive and absorptive capability of theparticles by at least about 3 percent by weight and below an amount atwhich the polymer mass loses its integrity, more preferably by at leastabout 5 weight percent and less than about 200 percent, even morepreferably by at least about 25 percent and less than about 200 percentand yet even more preferably by at least 40 percent and less than about150 percent.

The absorptive capacity of the particles is exceeded when small amountsof water can no longer be incorporated into the putty-like mass withoutseparation of lubricant. A large viscosity change takes placecorresponding to a transition from a paste to a slurry. An amount oflubricant exceeding the absorptive capacity of the particles should bemaintained throughout the entire mixing operation. The void volume andporosity are controlled by the amount of lubricant used.

The mean pore size of the final article generally is in the range fromabout 0.01 micrometers to about 10.0 micrometers, and more preferablyfrom about 0.1 micrometers to about 1.0 micrometers. With respect todistribution of pore size, preferably at least about 90 percent of thepores have a size less than about 1 micrometers. The void volume asmeasured by Mercury Intrusion Porosity preferably ranges from about 10percent to about 50 percent and more preferably from about 25 percent toabout 35 percent.

Alternatively, porosity of the film can be quantified by the Gurleyvalue of the film, that is, the amount of time needed for a given volumeof gas to pass through a predetermined area of the film. The Gurleymeasurements are obtained following the procedure given in ASTM standardD 726-58 (1983) method A, using either 50 cc or 10 cc of gas. Typically,Gurley values for films of the invention range from about 2 seconds per10 cc to about 100 seconds per 10 cc. Preferably, films show a Gurleyvalue of less than about 50 seconds per 10 cc and more preferably lessthan about 40 seconds per 10 cc.

Increasing the amount of lubricant increases void volume and mean poresize. The void volume and mean pore size vary according to the amount oflubricant present during the fibrillation process, all other variablesremaining constant including the amounts of polymer, particle type andsize, mixing time, temperature and other processing parameters. Theother variables can affect porosity but do not have the precisecontrolling effect provided by the lubricant amount. Control of allthese variables provides for a high level of reproducibility of theresulting porous electrode.

To practice the PF process, the materials are blended together to form asoft dough-like mixture. If a solid powdered polymer is used, a lowsurface energy solvent can be used to disperse the polymer into the mix.The blend is mixed at a temperature and for a time sufficient to causeinitial fibrillation of the polymer particles. The mixing temperature isselected to maintain the solvent in liquid form. When using aqueouslubricants, the temperature preferably is in the range from about 0° C.to about 90° C. and more preferably from about 20° C. to about 60° C.

Initial fibrillation can take place simultaneously with the initialmixing of the ingredients. If additional mixing is needed, mixing timesgenerally range from about 0.2 minutes to about 2 minutes to obtaininitial fibrillation of the fibril forming polymer. Initial fibrillationgenerally is optimum within about 90 seconds after the point when allcomponents have been fully incorporated together into a putty-likeconsistency. Mixing for shorter or longer times may produce a compositesheet with inferior properties. Preferably, mixing is ended after goingthrough or reaching a viscosity maximum. This initial mixing causespartial disoriented fibrillation of the fibril forming polymerparticles.

Devices useful for obtaining intensive mixing include commerciallyavailable mixing devices that sometimes are referred to as internalmixers, kneading mixers, double-blade batch mixers, intensive mixers andtwin screw extruder compounding mixers. The most popular mixers of thistype include sigma-blade mixers and sigma-arm mixers. Commerciallyavailable mixers of this type include those sold under the designationsBanbury™ mixer (Farrel Corp., Ansonia, Conn.), Mogul™ mixer (LittlefordDay Inc., Fluorence, KY), Brabender Prep™ mixer and Brabender™ sigmablade mixer (C.W. Brabender Instruments, Inc., South Hackensack, N.J.)and Ross™ mixers (Alling-Lander Co., Chesaire, Conn.).

Following mixing, the soft putty-like mass is transferred to acalendering device. The blend is subjected to repeated biaxialcalendering between calendering rolls to cause additional fibrillationof the polymer. For typical lubricant/polymer combinations, thecalendering rolls preferably are maintained at a temperature less thanabout 125° C., more preferably at a temperature from about 0° C. toabout 100° C. and even more preferably from about 20° C. to about 60° C.Lubricant lost to evaporation can be replaced between passes through thecalender. For non-aqueous lubricants, the temperature can be adjustedaccording to the temperatures over which the lubricant is a liquid.During calendering, lubricant levels are maintained at least at a levelexceeding the absorptive capacity of the solids by at least about 3percent by weight, until sufficient fibrillation occurs to produce thedesired void volume and porosity.

The calendering is repeated to form a self supporting tear resistantsheet. The gap between the calendering rolls generally is decreased witheach successive pass. The material typically but not necessarily isfolded and rotated 900 between passes through the calender. The numberof passes through the calender, the number of folds and gap settings canbe adjusted to yield the desired properties of the resultant sheet. Asthe calendering is repeated, the tensile strength reaches a maximumbeyond which additional calendering becomes deleterious. Calenderinggenerally is stopped after the maximum tensile strength is reached andbefore the tensile strength deteriorates below the minimum acceptabletensile strength. Generally, about 10 to about 20 passes through thecalendering rolls are appropriate. Once a web of the desired thicknesshas been obtained, it can be air-dried at room temperature or placed ina convection oven at an appropriate temperature in order to removeexcess inert fluid. Films preferably have a final thickness from about0.1 mm to about 1.0 mm, more preferably about 0.2 mm to about 0.4 mm.

The resultant sheet preferably has a tensile strength of at least about1 megapascals and more preferably at least about 3 megapascals. Thesheets are substantially uniformly porous with particles generallyuniformly distributed in a polymer fibril matrix. Almost all of theparticles generally are separated from each other, yet the particlesremain in sufficient proximity such that good electrical conductivity isobtained.

C. Separators

The separators include polymers and can be porous or solid. Theseparators can be made by similar processes used to produce theelectrodes. The separators, in contrast with the electrodes, areelectrochemically inert. In other words, the separators do notparticipate in the redox reactions within the battery. Part of thefunction of the separator is to keep apart the reactants taking part inthe two half reactions to prevent short circuiting of the battery. Theseparators must provide for ion conduction and are electricallyinsulating.

Solid separators provide for transmission of ions so that a net flow ofions across the separator can take place. The flow of ions is necessaryto the maintenance of electrical neutrality within the battery. Thesolid separators include ions of the electrolyte dispersed throughoutthe material to provide for the transmission in view of theincorporation of the ions in the material without the need for a liquidsolvent.

The electrolyte can be incorporated into the structure of the solidseparator following formation of the separator or formation of theentire battery by swelling the solid separator with a liquid plasticizercontaining dissolved electrolyte. The plasticizer can be removed laterto leave behind ionic electrolyte within the polymer separator. Solidseparators can also be called solid electrolytes, although this secondterm may have somewhat different scope.

Preferred separators are porous. Porous separators generally can providegreater ionic conduction with less resistance for a given voltage acrossthe separator than solid separators. Porous separators do notnecessarily have particles incorporated within the polymer. Preferredporous separators include particles within the polymer. The presence ofparticles within the structure provides for a broader range of effectivelamination conditions without destroying porosity. Generally, particlefilled separators resist compression better than unfilled porousseparators. Preferred particles are inert and are not electricallyconducting. Preferred particles include particles of, for example,silica, alumina, aluminum oxides, mica, clays, CaSiO_(x), AlSiO_(x) andglass. The separators preferably include from about 20 percent particlesto about 98 percent by volume, and more preferably from about 40 percentby weight to about 70 percent by volume.

Separators need to provide for ionic conduction preferably such thationic conduction is not a limiting step in current generation. Porousseparators may have higher void volumes than porous polymer electrodessince they are not loaded with active materials. Porous separatorspreferably have a void volume from about 30 percent to about 80 percentand more preferably from about 50 percent to about 80 percent.

The porosity and void volumes of the separator are limited only by therequirement that the separator maintains a reasonable mechanicalstrength and sufficient structural integrity such that the electrodesremain sufficiently isolated and that no redox reactions occur withoutcurrent production.

Separators preferably are thinner than the electrodes to minimize volumeand to maximize ion transport. Preferred separators have a thicknessfrom about 0.0005 inches to about 0.002 inches and more preferably fromabout 0.0005 inches to about 0.001 inches. The separator area generallyis equal to or slightly greater than the electrodes, which are placedadjacent to the separator such that contact of the electrodes isprevented.

Porous separators can be produced using the two methods described abovefor the production of porous electrodes. The processes are appropriatelyadapted for the production of separators by not including conducting orreactive particles within the structures. Separators can be stretched toincrease pore size.

D. Battery Construction

As noted above, the battery can include a variety of combinations ofpolymeric electrodes and separators preferably where at least one of theelements is porous. Preferred batteries have porous electrodes andporous separator.

The electrodes are placed on either side of the separator and are heldtogether. The elements must be held closely together to reduceresistance and to provide sufficient current. The elements can be heldtogether by a physical barrier exerting force around the outside of theelements. This physical barrier can be a container, a polymer coating orthe like.

Preferably, the elements are held together by lamination. Laminationsupplies the physical proximity that provides for useful currentsthrough a battery with a reasonable size. Lamination is preferred overthe alternatives using a physical barrier because the resistance isreduced and current correspondingly is increased. Surprisingly, thelamination step can be performed with porous polymer components withoutdestroying the porous characteristic or structural integrity of theelements. When lamination is used with porous separator elements, theseparator preferably includes a filler.

The lamination step should form cohesive association between thedifferent polymer components. Selection of appropriate conditions forthe lamination is based on the specific materials used. Particularexamples are described below.

The objective is to eliminate or, at least, reduce the physicalinterface between the layers. Cohesion or self-adhesion of polymers canbe promoted by increasing the total area of contact and throughdiffusional interlacing of polymer chains at the areas of contact. Thelamination processes either increase the physical interface, thediffusional interlacing or both. Some preferred polymer componentsdescribed above are more compressible than typical polymer films.Increased compressibility makes pressure more effective in increasingcontact area.

In addition to securing the separator to the two electrodes, at leastone current collector preferably is attached to each electrode. Thecurrent collector provides for connection of each electrode of thebattery to external connections. The current collector generally is madefrom a conductive metal. The current collector can have a variety ofshapes, where a preferred shape may depend on the method of attachingthe current collector to the electrode.

For example, as depicted in FIG. 1, current collectors 108, 110 can be athin metal foil with an extension 112, 114 for attachment of the batteryto external connections. The surface of the foil can be roughened toenhance adhesion. Alternatively, the current collector can be a metalgrid, for example, as depicted in FIG. 3. The metal grid can penetratethe surface of the electrode to secure the current collector to theelectrode. The foil sheet or grid can be laminated to the electrodeeither before, simultaneously or after lamination of the electrode tothe separator. The foil or grid can extend over the entire electrode oronly over a portion of the electrode.

Furthermore, the current collector can be completely integrated into thepolymer electrode. For example, the current collector can be sandwichedbetween two sheets of polymer electrode. Alternatively, to produce anintegrated current collector within an electrode, the current collectorcan be placed within the polymeric composition as the electrode is beingformed. For example, if the electrodes are produced by the TIPT process,the material can be extruded onto the current collector, preferably agrid. Alternatively, the current collector can be laminated to theelectrode by passing a current collector and at least one electrode filmthrough a set of nip rollers or the like preferably before extractingthe diluent. Preferably, relatively low pressures and moderatetemperatures (preferably from about 25° C. to about 170° C.) are used toform the laminate.

The lamination of the electrodes to the separator can be accomplished ina variety of ways. These approaches include the use of heat lamination,pressure lamination, solvent lamination, adhesive lamination orco-extrusion. Heat lamination, solvent lamination and adhesivelamination can involve some addition of pressure. The appropriatemethods for lamination depend on the materials. For TIPT components,films can be solvent laminated by maintaining the films in intimatecontact with each other during removal of the diluent in the films, forexample, as taught in U.S. Pat. No. 4,863,792, incorporated herein byreference. The effectiveness of the solvent for lamination depends onthe degree that the solvent swells the polymer, with improved laminationcorresponding with increased swelling.

The use of adhesives is generally only appropriate for the lamination ofthe current collector to the electrode. Adhesives can interfere with theflow of ions if they are used to laminate the electrodes to theseparator. Preferred adhesives include polyethylene latexes containingconductive carbon.

In addition, two or all three of the polymer components can becoextruded with or without current collectors. This coextrusion of thepolymers would be preferably done when the materials are being formed bythe TIPT process. To complete the TIPT process, the coextruded structurewould then be cooled quickly to induce the phase transition, asdescribed above.

The preferred lamination techniques for the different preferredmaterials used to construct the battery are summarized in the Tablesbelow. These are preferred approaches and other combination may bepossible while achieving successful results.

TABLE 1 ELECTRODE CURRENT COLLECTOR PF P, A TIPT H, A, E, P

TABLE 2 SEPARATOR TIPT ELECTRODE TIPT (Filled) PF PF P H, P P TIPT S, CEH, S, CE, P P

Legend for Tables 1 and 2

H=Heat

P=Pressure

S=Solvent

A=Adhesive

E=Extrude

CE=Co-Extrude

E. Additional Processing

The demand exists for batteries for commercial use with ever increasingperformance capabilities. Therefore, the performance characteristicspreferably are optimized. While the materials described above have goodporosity with respect to ion flow, it has been discovered thatadditional processing improves these characteristics further.

First, the polymer electrode can be heated near or above the meltingpoint of the polymer. Surprisingly, this does not destroy the porosity.Instead, it is found that the pore size increases, the Gurley Timedecreases and resistivity decreases. These changes increase withtemperature until a maximum is reach generally at or above the meltingpoint of the polymer. Use of higher temperatures above this maximum onlyembrittles the electrode. Similar processing can be performed oniseparators such as silica filled polymer separators.

The best results are generally obtained from about 20 degrees centigradeabove to about 20 degrees centigrade below the melting point of thepolymer. Preferably, the heating is performed for a period of time toheat the polymer electrode up to the target temperature and for polymerflow to occur. For laboratory evaluation, a period of about 10 minutesis sufficient to ensure that the film has equilibrated at thetemperature of the oven and for polymer flow to occur. This period oftime accommodates the inevitable loss of heat from an oven due toopening and the time required for the oven to equilibrate at its setpoint. For continuous in-line processing, much shorter residence timesmay be sufficient for heating the film to the target temperature and forpolymer flow to occur.

In addition, the polymer electrodes can be calendered by passing theelectrode through rollers under sufficient pressure to decrease the voidvolume of the electrode. Calendering decreases the void volume, whichresults in an increase in the volumetric energy efficiency of thebattery and an increase in conductivity. Calendering can also decreasebrittleness that can result from heating the polymer film.

Preferably, the electrodes are treated with both heat and calendering.For TIPT electrodes the heating and calendering preferably is done afterthe diluent is removed. The calendering is preferably done to theelectrode after the heating. Alternatively, the calendering can be doneprior to or simultaneously with the heating step.

Alternatively, the heat treatment and/or calendering can be performed onthe battery construction following lamination. The processing of thebattery construction preferably does not significantly reduce the voidvolume of the separator. When this processing is performed on thebattery construction, the separator element preferably includesparticles (i.e., filler), which impart compression resistance to theseparator and prevents loss of porosity. Again, the heat treatment ispreferably done prior to calendering, although the calendering can beperformed prior to or simultaneously with the heat treatment.

F. Activation and Use

The final product is infused with electrolyte to provide for ionic flowwithin the battery during use. The electrolyte can be introduced atvarious points in the production process. The electrolyte can be presentwhen the lamination step is performed. In this way, a functioningbattery is formed following the lamination process.

Alternatively, the lamination can be performed without any electrolytepresent. The resulting structure has a long shelf life since no ionicflow is possible to encourage chemical reactions within the electrodes.Then, the electrolyte is added to the finished battery when ready foractivation. If the electrodes are solid but the separator is porous, theelectrolyte preferably is sufficiently flowable such that theelectrolyte flows through the pores of the separator to infuse theentire region between the electrodes and the separator.

EXAMPLES

Gurley Value Measurements—

Gurley value is a measure of resistance to air flow through a film.Gurley values were evaluated according to ASTM protocol D726-58 (1983,reapproved 1971), Method A (using a suitable gasket as specified in§4.2), except that either 50 cc or 10 cc of air was used. Specifically,this is a measurement of the time in seconds for the volume of air topass through an area of film at a pressure of 124 mm of water. Inevaluating the Gurley values, the air flow is evaluated through a 6.4cm² (1.0 in²) area of film. The film is clamped between two plates.Then, a cylinder is released that provides air to the sample at thespecified pressure. The time for a given amount of air flow is readelectronically using marks on the cylinder.

Bubble Point Measurement—

Bubble point is the largest passageway in the film as determinedaccording to ASTM F-316-80. Ethanol was used as the test liquid. Theliquid is used to fill the pores of the film. Pressure is applied untilflow as bubbles takes place through the largest passageway through thefilm. The bubbles are observed from a tube that is connected to the lowpressure side of the test cell and that is submerged in water. Thenecessary pressure depends on the surface tension of the test liquid andthe largest size of the passageway. Bubble point in microns, usingethanol as the test liquid, is equal to 9.25/pressure in psi atbreakthrough.

Resistivity—

With respect to Examples 1-8, in-plane electrical resistance wasmeasured using two, 1.5 cm wide aluminum bars that are placed parallelto each other on the surface of the film. Weights were placed on top ofthe bars to give a pressure of 300 g/cm². The results were generallypressure dependent. The resistance between the two aluminum bars wasmeasured using a standard ohm meter. The resistivity in ohm-cm wascalculated using the following equation:

resistivity=(in-plane resistance×width of the film×filmthickness)/distance between bars

Example 1

High Density Polyethylene Cathode—TIPT Process

A dispersion was prepared by wetting out 7095 g of LiCoO₂ (FMC, BessemerCity, N.C.) followed by 789 g of VXC72 conductive carbon (Cabot Corp.,Billesica, Mass.) into a mixture of 2487 g of mineral oil (Superla®White Mineral Oil No. 31, Amoco Oil Co., Chicago, Ill.) and 789 g ofdispersant, OLOA 1200, a succinimide lubricating oil additive (Chevron,San Francisco, Calif.), using a dispersator. A dispersator is a highshear mixing device having a flat disc with perpendicular saw toothprojections on its edge. The resulting mixture was passed through a 1.5L horizontal mill from Premier Mill containing an 80 volume percentcharge of 1.3 mm chrome-steel beads. The mill was operated at aperipheral speed of 1800 fpm at a throughput rate of about 0.5 L/min.The density of the resultant dispersion was 1.8960 g/cc.

The dispersion was diluted with mineral oil in an iterative fashionuntil the density was 1.7707 g/cc (25° C.). This dispersion then washeated to 150° C. while mixing with the dispersator and held at 150° C.for about 20 min. to degas it. It was then cooled to about 35° C. beforetransferring to the feed tank of the extruder.

The dispersion was pumped into an injection port on the third zone of aBerstorff co-rotating twin screw extruder (25 mm×825 mm). High densitypolyethylene, HDPE, (grade GM 9255 from Fina) was metered into the feedzone (first zone) at a rate of 1.35 lb./hr., and the above dispersionwas pumped at a nominal rate of 95.0 cc/min. using a gear pump. Theextruder profile starting from the feed zone was 380, 490, 490, 400,330, 320, 330° F., the die temperature was 330° F., and the screw speedwas 120 rpm. Film was extruded through an 8 in. die onto a smoothcasting wheel heated to 32° C.

The resultant film was 0.0122 inches thick and the experimentallydetermined total film throughput rate was 22.7 lb./hr. Thus, the actualdispersion feed rate was 21.4 lb./hr. From this and the dispersiondensity, the total particulate content in the film after extraction ofthe oil was calculated to be 91.1 wt. percent.

The oil was extracted from the film using three, 10 min. washes withtoluene. About 1 L of toluene per wash was used for a piece of film thatwas about 7″ wide by 12″ long. The film was then hung in an exhaust hoodto dry. The thickness after drying was about 0.0119 inches. A piece ofthis film was further processed by hanging the film in a circulating airoven for 10 min. at 130° C. Measurements on the prepared film with andwithout further processing in the oven are shown in the table below.Heating the film to about the HDPE melting point of about 126° C. (peaktemperature by DSC) resulted in a significant decrease in Gurley andsignificant increase in bubble point. Surprisingly, the linear shrinkagewas only 6.7 percent.

TABLE 3 After Washing/Drying, After Heating for Before Heating 10 min.at 130° C. Caliper 11.9 11.1 Gurley (sec./50 cc) 421 175 Bubble Point(microns) 0.18 0.32 Percent Shrinkage — 6.7 (length) Resistivity(ohm-cm) 205 6.1

Example 2

Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene Cathode—TIPT Process.

The following mixture was prepared using a Haake Rheocord System 40™equipped with roller blades. Mineral oil (Superla® White Mineral Oil No.31), 29.3 g, was added to the mixing chamber (the shafts were wrappedwith Teflon® tape to prevent leakage). Then, while mixing at 50 rpm,53.2 g of a mixture of 90 percent by weight LiCoO₂ (FMC) and 10 percentby weight VXC72 conductive carbon (Cabot) was added. During the additionof this mixture of powders, the temperature of the mixer was beingraised from ambient temperature to 150° C.

Following addition of the LiCoO₂ and conductive carbon, 1.34 g of ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene, UHMWPE, (grade GUR 4132 fromHoechst-Celanese, Houston, Tex.) was added. The mixer was then closed,and the mixing speed was increased to 100 rpm. The mixing was continuedfor 15 min. from the time that the UHMWPE was added. The molten mixturewas then removed from the mixer.

A portion of the solidified mixture was placed between two sheets of 7mil polyester film and then between two aluminum plates. The aluminumplates surrounding the polymers were placed in a Carver platen hydraulicpress (Model 2518, Fred S. Carver Corp., Wabash, Ind.) at 150° C. Shimsof 10 mil thickness were placed between the polyester film to limitclosing of the press. The press was closed gradually over a 6 min.period to allow the polymer to re-dissolve in the oil before fullyclosing the press. The press was then closed using 100 psi and thenopened after about 10 sec. The resultant pressed film with the polyestercover sheets still attached was immersed into a pail of water at ambienttemperature, about 20° C., to quench the film.

The polyester film was peeled away and water on the electrode was wipedoff. The oil was extracted as described in Example 1. The resultant filmafter extraction of the oil was 0.011 inches thick.

Example 3

Polypropylene Cathode—TIPT Process

The following mixture was prepared using a Haake Rheocord System 9000equipped with roller blades. A 59.4 g quantity of a dry blend of about90 percent by weight LiCoO₂ (FMC) and about 10 percent by weight VXC72conductive carbon (Cabot), and 31.0 g mineral oil (Superla® WhiteMineral Oil No. 31), were added alternately to the mixing chamber whilemixing at 50 rpm initially and increasing the rpm gradually as themixture became more viscous. Then, 7.72 g of polypropylene, PP, (gradeDS D45 from Shell, Houston, Tex.) was added. Heating was commenced andthe mixture was heated to 230° C. while mixing at 100 rpm. Mixing wascontinued until it was evident that steady torque had been reached, 31min. after addition of the PP. The mixture was removed from the mixerwhile still hot.

A 21.4 g portion of the cooled mixture was placed between two sheets of7 mil polyester film that had been coated with a light coating ofmineral oil to facilitate removal of the mixture from the film afterpressing. The mixture and polyester sheets were placed directly into aCarver press with 10 mil shims between the polyester film to limitclosure of the press. The mixture was heated for 3 min. with no appliedpressure and then the press was closed using 50 psi for 5 sec. followedby opening of the press and quenching of the resultant film by immersionof it with the polyester film still attached into water at ambienttemperature.

The polyester film was peeled off, water wiped away, and the oil wasextracted using toluene as described in Example 1. The film was about0.008 inches thick after extraction of the oil.

Example 4

Polyvinylidene Fluoride Cathode—TIPT Process

A 6.22 g portion of VXC72 conductive carbon first was mixed into 94.8 gPC using a dispersator to increase the viscosity of propylene carbonate(PC). Then, 33.7 g of this mixture (2.11 g of VXC72 conductive carbonand 31.6 g of PC) were transferred into the mixing chamber of a HaakeRheocord System 40™ equipped with roller blades. After placing themixture into the mixing chamber, 79.8 g of LiCoO₂ were added followed byaddition of 7.89 g of polyvinylidene fluoride, PVDF (grade Solef 1010from Solvay, Houston, Tex.) while mixing at 50 rpm at room temperature.Next, the mixing speed was increased to 100 rpm and heating to 180° C.was commenced. While heating, an additional 1.88 g of VXC72 conductivecarbon was added. The mixture was removed 15 min. after heating wasstarted, while still hot.

A portion of the film was placed between two sheets of polyimide filmand placed into a Carver press at 150° C. using 10 mil shims between thepolyimide film. After heating for 3 min., the press was closed using 100psi for 5 sec. The resultant film with polyimide film still attached wasimmersed into ambient temperature, deionized water to quench it. The topsheet of polyimide film was removed easily. The pressed film was removedfrom the bottom polyimide film using a razor blade. The PC was extractedfrom the film as in Example 1 except that isopropyl alcohol was usedinstead of toluene. After drying, the film was 0.011 inches thick.

As shown in the table below, heating the film at 180° C., which is abovethe melting point of the PVDF (177° C.), resulted in a significantdecrease in Gurley and significant increase in bubble point.

TABLE 4 After Washing/Drying, After Heating for Before Heating 10 min.at 180° C. Caliper 10 10 Gurley (sec./50 cc) 101 23.5 Bubble Point(microns) 0.84 — Resistivity (ohm-cm) 16 6.7

Example 5

High Density Polyethylene Anode—TIPT Process

The following mixture was prepared using a Haake Rheocord System 9000™equipped with roller blades. Super S conductive carbon (M. M. M. Carbon,Brussels, Belgium), 1.46 g, was poured into the mixing chamber, whichwas at 100° C. Then, while mixing at 50 rpm, 58.8 g of agraphite/mineral oil mixture was poured into the mixing chamber. Thegraphite/mineral oil mixture was prepared by mixing 83.16 g of MCMB 6-28graphite (Alumina Trading Co., Park Ridge, N.J.) into 94.26 g of mineraloil (Superla® White Mineral Oil No. 31) using a dispersator. As theviscosity increased during the addition of the graphite/mineral oilmixture to the mixing chamber, the mixing speed was increased to 100rpm.

Then, 7.86 g of HDPE (grade 1285 from Fina Oil and Chemical Co.,LaPorte, Tex.) was added to the mixture. The mixture with the HDPE washeated to 230° C., which occurred over a period of about 10 min. Totalmixing time after addition of the HDPE was about 36 min., which was thetime required to ensure that a steady torque plateau had been reached.The resultant mixture was removed from the mixer while hot.

After cooling, 16.0 g of the solidified mixture was placed between 7 milpolyester sheets. The polyester sheets with the solidified mixture wereplaced in a Carver press at 160° C. with 10 mil shims placed between thepolyester sheets. After heating in the press for 3 min. with no appliedpressure, the mixture was pressed for 10 sec. using 50 psi. Theresultant film with polyester sheets still attached was immersed intowater at ambient temperature to quench it. The oil was extracted fromthe film using toluene as described in Example 1.

Example 6

Ultrahigh Molecular Weight Polyethylene Anode—TIPT Process.

First, a dry blend of MCMB 6-28 graphite, 27.89 g, and Super P (M. M. M.Carbon, Brussels, Belgium) conductive carbon, 1.47 g, was prepared usinga spatula for mixing. Portions of this mixture and portions of mineraloil (Superla® White Mineral Oil No. 31), 37.1 g total, were addedalternately to the mixing chamber of a Haake Rheocord System 9000equipped with roller blades, which was at 40° C. During the addition ofthe materials, the mixing rate was 50 rpm.

Then, 1.55 g of ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene, UHMWPE, (gradeGUR 4132 from Hoechst Celanese) were added. After this addition wascompleted, the temperature of the chamber was increased to 150° C., andthe mixing speed was increased to 80 rpm. Mixing was continued for 10min. after the addition of the UHMWPE had been completed. The mixturewas removed from the mixer while still hot.

After cooling, 13.1 g of the solidified mixture was placed between 7 milpolyester sheets. The polyester sheets with the solidified mixture wereplaced in a Carver press at 160° C. with 10 mil shims placed between thepolyester sheets. After heating in the press for 3 min. with no appliedpressure, the mixture was pressed for 10 sec. using 50 psi. Theresultant film with polyester sheets still attached was immersed intowater at ambient temperature to quench it. The oil was extracted fromthe film using toluene as described in Example 1. Measurements of theproperties of the film with and without additional heat processing arepresented in Table 5.

TABLE 5 After Washing/Drying, After Heating for Before Heating 10 min.at 130° C. Caliper 6 6 Gurley (sec./50 cc) 36.8 19.6 Bubble Point(microns) 0.60 0.93 Resistivity (ohm-cm) 36 9.7

Example 7

Polypropylene Anode—TIPT Process

Super S conductive carbon, 1.46 g, was poured into the mixing chamber ofa Haake Rheocord System 9000 equipped with roller blades, which was at100° C. Then, while mixing at 50 rpm, 59.7 g of a graphite/mineral oilmixture was poured into the mixing chamber. The graphite/mineral oilmixture was prepared by mixing 83.3 g of MCMB 6-28 graphite into 91.9 gof mineral oil (Superla® White Mineral Oil No. 31) using a dispersator.As the viscosity increased during the addition of the graphite/mineraloil mixture to the mixing chamber, the mixing rate was increased to 100rpm.

Next, 7.66 g of polypropylene, PP (grade DS 5D45 from Shell) were added.After the addition of the PP, the mixture was heated to 230° C., whichoccurred over a period of about 10 min. Total mixing time after additionof the PP was about 33 min. The resultant mixture was removed from themixer while hot.

After cooling, 14.2 g of the solidified mixture was placed between 7 milpolyester sheets, which had been coated with a thin coating of mineraloil to facilitate release. The polyester sheets with the solidifiedmixture were placed in a Carver press at 160° C. with 10 mil shimsplaced between the polyester sheets. After heating in the press for 3min. with no applied pressure, the mixture was pressed for 10 sec. using50 psi. The resultant film with polyester sheets still attached wasimmersed into water at ambient temperature to quench the film. The oilwas extracted from the film using toluene as described in Example 1.Measurements on the film with and without additional heat processing aregiven in Table 6.

TABLE 6 After Washing/Drying, After Heating for Before Heating 10 min.at 180° C. Caliper 8.2 8.0 Gurley (sec./50 cc) 32 — Bubble Point(microns) 0.66 — Resistivity (ohm-cm) 8.96 1.5

The film became brittle after heating at 180° C. for 10 min.

Example 8

Polyvinylidene Fluoride Anode—TIPT Process

A mixture of 91.37 g MCMB 6-28 graphite and 96.18 g propylene carbonate,PC, (Aldrich, Milwaukee, Wis.) was prepared by using a dispersator. A65.8 g portion of this mixture was transferred into the mixing chamberof a Haake Rheocord System 40™ equipped with roller blades, which was at50° C. Then, while mixing at 50 rpm, 8.31 g of powdered polyvinylidenefluoride, PVDF (grade Solef 1010 from Solvay) were added. Thetemperature was increased to 180° C.

After increasing the temperature, an additional 4.16 g of PVDF followedby 1.60 g of Super P conductive carbon were added. Then, the mixingspeed was increased to 100 rpm. After mixing for 11 min. followingcompletion of the additions, the mixing chamber was cooled to 150° C.(about 3 min.), and the mixture was removed from the mixer.

After cooling was completed, 12 g of solidified mixture was placedbetween two sheets of polyimide film with 10 mil shims inserted betweenthe polyimide film. The polyimide sheets with the solidified mixturewere placed in a Carver press at 150° C. After heating for 3 min. withno applied pressure, the press was closed for 5 sec. using 150 psi. Theresultant film with polyimide sheets still attached was then immersedinto deionized water at ambient temperature. The polyimide film wasremoved and the resultant film washed and dried as described in Example1 except that isopropyl alcohol was used to extract the PC. Measurementsmade on the film with and without additional heat processing arepresented in Table 7.

TABLE 7 After Washing/Drying, After Heating for Before Heating 10 min.at 180° C. Caliper 13 13 Gurley (sec./50 cc) 274 77 Bubble Point(microns) 0.21 1.85 Resistivity (ohm-cm) 2.97 0.69

Example 9

Batteries with HDPE—TIPT Cathode

Coin cells were produced from the HDPE cathode material similar to thosedescribed in Example 1, above. The film was washed three times fortwenty minutes with toluene to remove the oil. For selected cells, thefilms similar to the films of Example 1, prior to the final heatingstep, were further processed. Three cells were made using films producedfrom each of four different processing approaches for a total of twelvecells.

A 12 inch×12 inch polymeric electrode film was cut into four equalpieces. The first piece was untreated. The second piece was calenderedby seven passes through a 6 inch diameter steel mill from ReliableRubber & Plastic Machinery Co., Inc., North Bergan, N.J.). During theseven passes through the mill, the gap in mils was set as follows: 10,9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4. The third piece was heat treated in an oven for 10minutes at 135° C. The fourth piece was heat treated according to thetreatment of the third piece followed by calendering by five passesthrough the mill. The gap during the calendering of the fourth piece wasprogressively reduced as follows: 11, 10, 9, 8, 7.

The four processed sheets were cut into three 7.1 mm diameter circularelectrodes. The cathodes had a weight of about 15-17 mg. Three lithiumhalf cells were produced from these electrodes. The cells made from theuncalendered electrodes had a thickness of about 0.009 inches to about0.010 inches, while the cells from the calendered electrodes had athickness of about 0.007 inches, based on the sum of the thicknesses ofthe dry components. An aluminum current collector was placed adjacent tothe polymer cathode. The separator had a 3/8 inch diameter and was 0.001inches thick, porous polyethylene separator sold as Cotran™ 9711(Minnesota, Mining & Manufacturing, Maplewood, Minn.), and the anode wasa lithium disc in contact with a copper current collector.

All cut-out electrodes and separators were soaked in a vial ofelectrolyte for a minimum of 20 minutes. The electrolyte contained 1 MLiPF₆ in an equal volume mixture of ethylene carbonate and diethylcarbonate. Each electrode and separator was removed soaking wet andassembled into a cell. The elements were placed within an anode can witha cathode cover. Up to about 10 microliters of additional electrolytewas added based on visual indicators or poor wetting.

The cells were first charged at 4.30 volts with a current of 0.5 ma/cm²to a capacity of 170 mAh/gram active material. The cells were thencycled from 3.50-4.20 volts at 0.5 ma/cm². The charging and cycling wasperformed on a Maccor series 2000 battery tester (Maccor Inc., Tulsa,Okla.) operated with generation 3.0 software. The results fromequivalent cells of each type were averaged. The results are shown inFIG. 4. The total capacity of the cells were measured in milliamp-hoursper gram of active material, LiCoO₂. In examples 10-16, three cellsgenerally are averaged, although occasionally only two cells wereproduced.

Example 10

Batteries with UHMWPE—TIPT Cathode

Films were prepared as described above in Example 2. The films werewashed three times for 20 minutes with toluene to remove the oil. Thefilm following washing was 0.011 inches thick. Then, the films werecalendered in the dual 6 inch diameter steel mill as in Example 9, wherethe gap in mils was reduced as follows: 7.5, 5.0, 2.5, 1.0, 0.5, 0.0.(Note that the gap settings on the mill were not recalibrated.) Aftercalendering, the film had a thickness of 0.006 inches. The electrodeshad a weights ranging from 14.9 to 15.6 mg.

Batteries were prepared as described in Example 9. Measurements weremade on the total capacity of the cells. The results are shown in FIG.5.

Example 11

Batteries with PP—TIPT Cathode

The films were prepared as described in Example 3. The films were washedthree times for twenty minutes with toluene to remove the oil. The filmfollowing washing and drying was 0.008 inches thick.

The dried film was cut into four equal pieces for further processing.The first piece received no further processing. The second wascalendered as described above, where the gap was progressively reducedin inches as follows: 0.008, 0.007, 0.006. The third piece was heated inan oven for twelve minutes at 170 OC. The fourth piece was heatedcomparably to the third piece and also calendered, where the gap wasprogressively reduced in inches as follows: 0.010, 0.009, 0.008, 0.007,0.006.

Batteries were constructed from each cathode film as described inExample 9. The total capacity of the batteries were measured over manydischarge/recharge cycles. The results from similarly processed cells ofeach type were averaged. The results are plotted in FIG. 6.

Example 12

Batteries with PVDF—TIPT Cathode

Cathode films were prepared as described in Example 4. The films werewashed three times for twenty minutes in isopropyl alcohol to remove thePC. The washed and dried films were 0.011 inch thick.

The dried films were cut into four equal pieces for further processing.The first piece received no further processing. The second piece wascalendered as described in Example 9, where the gap was progressivelyreduced in inches as follows: 0.011, 0.010, 0.009, 0.008. The third filmwas heat treated in an oven for ten minutes at 180° C. The fourth filmwas heat treated like the third film and further calendered, where thegap was progressively reduced in inches as follows: 0.014, 0.013, 0.012,0.011, 0.009, 0.008.

Batteries were constructed as described in Example 9. Cells were madefrom each of the four different cathode films. The total capacity of thecells were measured over several cycles. The measurements fromequivalent cells of each type were averaged. The results are plotted inFIG. 7.

Example 13

Batteries with HDPE—TIPT Anode

Anode films were prepared as described in Example 5. The films werewashed three times for twenty minutes with toluene to remove the oil.The washed and dried film had a thickness of 0.065 inches.

The film was cut into two equal pieces for further processing. The firstpiece was calendered as described in Example 9, where the gap in milswas progressively reduced as follows: 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, andfor two passes at gap setting of: 1, 0, −1. The second piece was heatedwith a heat gun, Master Heat Gun Model HG-501A (Master Appliance Corp.,Racine, Wis.) with a maximum heat for the model ranging between 260° C.and 399° C. A strip of washed film was clipped with a paper clip to analuminum foil tray, and then heated with the heat gun until a visibledarkening of the film is observed and the piece shrinks. The total timeof the heat treatment was about 20 seconds Heating is complete when nofurther shrinkage or color change is observed.

Batteries were made from the two differently processed films asdescribed in Example 9. The polymer anode is placed adjacent a coppercurrent collector. The separator was a Cotran™ 9711 polyethyleneseparator. A lithium disc adjacent a copper current collector is used asthe cathode. All cut-out electrodes and separators were soaked in a vialof electrolyte for a minimum of 20 minutes. The electrolyte contained 1MLiPF₆ in an equal volume mixture of ethylene carbonate and diethylcarbonate. Each electrode and separator was removed soaking wet andassembled into a cell. The structure is placed in an anode can with acathode cover. Up to about 10 microliters of additional electrolyte wasadded based on visual indications of poor wetting.

The total capacity of each cell was measured over severaldischarge/recharge cycles. An initial discharge is performed at 0.0volts at a current of 0.5 ma/cm² to a capacity of 360 mAh/gram of activematerial. The cell is then cycled between 0.01-1.5 volts at a current of0.5 ma/cm². The results for equivalent cells were averaged. The resultsare plotted in FIG. 8.

Example 14

Batteries with UHMWPE—TIPT Anode

Anode film material was prepared as described in Example 6. The film waswashed three times for twenty minutes with toluene. The washed and driedfilm was 0.0065 inches thick.

The dried film was cut into four equal pieces. The first piece receivedno additional processing. The second piece was calendered as describedin Example 9, where the gap was progressively reduced in mils asfollows: 6, 5, 4, 3. The third piece was heat treated for ten minutes at136° C. The fourth piece was heat treated like the third piece. Afterheat treatment, the fourth piece was calendered, where the gap wasprogressively reduced in mils as follows: 5, 4, 3.

Batteries were constructed as described in Example 9 from eachdifferently processed anode film. The total capacity of the cells weremeasured over several discharge/recharge cycles. The results forbatteries constructed from the equivalently processed anode films wereaveraged. The results are presented in FIG. 9.

Example 15

Batteries with PP—TIPT Anode

The anode film materials were prepared as described in Example 7. Thefilm was washed three times for twenty minutes with toluene. The washedand dried film was 0.0065 inches thick.

The dried film was cut into four equal pieces. The first piece receivedno additional processing. The second piece was calendered as describedin Example 9, where the gap was progressively reduced in mils asfollows: 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 3 (second pass). The third piece was heattreated for ten minutes at 136° C. The fourth piece was heat treatedlike the third piece. After heat treatment, the fourth piece wascalendered, where the gap was progressively reduced in mils as follows:9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2.

Batteries were constructed as described in Example 9 from eachdifferently processed anode film. The total capacity of the cells weremeasured over several discharge/recharge cycles. The results forbatteries constructed from the equivalently processed anode films wereaveraged. The results are presented in FIG. 10.

Example 16

Batteries with PVDF—TIPT Anode

The anode films were prepared as described in Example 8. The films werewashed three times for twenty minutes with isopropyl alcohol to removethe PC. The washed and dried film was 0.012 inches thick.

The dried film was cut into pieces. The first piece received no furtherprocessing. The second piece was heat treated in an oven for ten minutesat 180° C.

Each piece of anode film was used to produce batteries as described inExample 9. The total capacity of the resulting cells were measured. Themeasurements for equivalent cells were averaged. The results are plottedin FIG. 11.

Example 17

Polytetrafluoroethylene—PF Anode

A 30 g portion of XP3 grade petroleum coke from Conoco, Ponca City,Okla. was mixed in a beaker with 1.6 g of Teflon® 6C brandpolytetrafluoroethylene, PTFE, from DuPont (Wilmington, Del.) and a 40 gportion of Fluorinert FC-40 solvent from 3M (Saint Paul, Minn.). Thematerial was passed through a roll mill set at a 100 mil gap with theroll temperature at 125° F. The resulting mass was folded into 3 layersand again passed through the mill with an orientation 900 to that of thefirst pass. This process of folding, rotating 900 and milling wasrepeated 12 times. The resulting web was then passed through the millwith successive gaps of 75, 50, 35, and 15 mils with consistentorientation. Next, the web was folded into 8 layers then passed throughthe mill with successive gaps of 100, 75, 50, 35, 20, 15, 10 and 7 milswith consistent orientation. The resulting electrode material was driedat 160° C. in a forced air oven overnight.

A 7.3 mm diameter circular piece was cut from the material to form anelectrode. The circular electrode had a weight of 11.4 mg and athickness of 250 microns. Then, the electrode was placed in a standard1225 size coin cell with metallic lithium as the counter electrode, anda porous Cotran™ 9711 separator between the two electrodes. A 30 μlportion of 1 M lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF₆) solution in an equalvolume mixture of ethylene carbonate and diethyl carbonate was added asthe electrolyte, and copper and aluminum discs as current collectorswere placed on the negative and positive sides of the cell respectively.

The cell was cycled at room temperature at a constant current rate of0.72 mA on charge and 0.216 mA on discharge between voltage limits of−0.025 and 1.0 volt. The cell provided specific capacity on the firstdeintercalation of 193 milliampere hours per gram (mAh/g) based on theweight of petroleum coke. The cell subsequently was cycled over 50 timeswhile maintaining a coulombic efficiency of greater than 99%.

Example 18

Polytetrafluoroethylene—PF Cathode

The electrode formation procedure of Example 17 was repeated using amixture of 45 g LiCoO₂ from Seimi Chemical, Japan, 3.5 g of KS44graphite from Timcal, FairLawn N.J., 1.50 g of XC-72R carbon black fromCabot Corporation, 1.58 g of Teflon 6C, and 36 g of Fluorinert FC-40. Acircular electrode was cut from this material with a 7.3 mm diameter,21.3 mg weight, and a 250 micron thickness.

A cell was built with this electrode using the same construction asexample 17 above (Li anode) and cycled at room temperature with constantcurrent rates of 0.216 mA charge and 0.72 mA discharge between voltagelimits of 3.5 and 4.2. The electrode material provided 132 mAh/g basedon weight of LiCoO₂ on the f irst intercalation and cycled over 35 timeswhile maintaining coulombic efficiency greater than 99%.

Example 19

Laminate Battery (1)—PF Electrodes

The anode material of Example 17 was cut into a rectangular piece 2.5 cmby 5.4 cm. This material was folded into a square and pressure bonded toa piece of interleaved copper expanded metal using 20,000 pounds offorce in a Carver press. The expanded metal current collector was cut toa size slightly smaller than the electrode material and had a tabextending from one edge.

Two pieces of cathode material were cut from a cathode film as describedin Example 18. The pieces were 2.5 cm square. These electrode pieceswere pressure bonded with 10,000 pounds of force to one another with aninterleaving aluminum expanded metal current collector between the twopieces. The aluminum current collector was cut slightly smaller than thearea of the cathode pieces and had a tab extending from one side.

A separator was cut from a piece of silica filled porous polyethylenecontaining 52% by weight of precipitated silica. To prepare the silicafilled polyethylene, 866 g of Zeothix™ 265 silica (J. M. Huber Corp.,Harve de Grace, Md.) was dried overnight at 250° C. in a circulating airoven. The dried silica was added to a mixture of 2572 g of mineral oil(Superla® White Mineral Oil No. 31, Amoco) and 1372 g of Span 80™ (ICIAmericas, Inc., Wilmington, Del.) dispersant using a dispersator havinga 2 inch saw tooth mixing head. Then, this mixture was heated to 150° C.and maintained at 150° C. for 30 min. to remove volatiles. After coolingto about 140° C., the mixture was transferred into a feed tank andpumped into an intermediate zone on a 25×825 mm twin screw extruder asin example 1 at 82.7 cc/min. Fina 1285 HDPE was metered into the feedzone at 1.53 lb/hr. The film composition was calculated from theexperimentally determined total throughput rate, 10.63 lb./hr, the knownHDPE feed rate, and the known dispersion composition.

The film was quenched by extrusion onto a patterned casting wheel at aset point temperature of 32° C. with the pattern having 100, 5 mil high,45°, four sided pyramids per square inch (15.5 pyramids per squarecentimeter). The oil was extracted from a 6 in.×12 in. piece withtoluene using three, 1 liter washes. The thickness before extraction was0.0027 inches, and the thickness after extraction was 0.0025 inches.

Another piece of film from the same extrusion run but having a thicknessof 0.0046 inches after extraction of the oil using a Vertrel 423 wasfound to have a bubble point of 0.13 microns and a Gurley value of 172sec./55 cc. After heating a piece of this film at 130° C. for 10 minutesin a circulating air oven, the thickness was 0.0045 in., the bubblepoint was 0.21 microns, and the Gurley value was 61 sec./55cc. Theseresults show that silica-filled TIPT film can be prepared as a porousseparator in lamination processes using heat without loss of porosity.

A piece of the 0.0025 in thick separator was cut to slightly overlap theentire area of the anode assembly. The components are arranged so thatthe separator and anode fold over the cathode such that all of thesurface of the cathode film is opposed by the anode and the separator.In other words, the anode and the separator are folded in two and thecathode is nested inside. A cell element is created by pressure bondingthe above assemblies with the separator between the anode and cathode at5,000 pounds of force in a Carver press. The cell element was dried at110° C. for 3 hours under vacuum.

The cell was activated by the addition of electrolyte to the above cellelement. To incorporate the electrolyte, the cell element was placed ina solution of 1 molar lithium bis(perfluoroethyl)sulfonyl imide salt(3M, Saint Paul, Minn.) in a mixture of 50% by volume ethylene carbonateand 50% by volume dimethyl carbonate until the cell element absorbed 25%of its original dry weight. The resulting electrochemical cell (EC) hada weight of 1.82 g wet and a volume of 0.6 cc. The EC was heat sealed ina pouch made from 3 mil polyethylene film with the tab ends of thecurrent collectors protruding through the heat seal to provideelectrical terminals.

The battery assembled above was cycled at a constant 13 mA currentbetween voltage limits of 4.2 and 2.75 Volts. The battery provided 52.6mAh of capacity and 182.3 mWh of energy on the first discharge. Thistranslates to 100 Watt-hours/Kg (Wh/Kg) specific energy and 300 Wh/L ofvolumetric energy based on the dimensions of the EC. A surprising resultwas that this level of energy storage capability was obtained in aliquid electrolyte cell operating with no external stack pressure. Theconstant current charge was interrupted at 4.2 Volts for 30 minutes. Theimpedance of the cell in ohm square centimeters at various timeintervals determined from the resulting voltage relaxation are tabulatedbelow:

Area Specific Impedance: Relaxation Time Ω · cm² 10 milli-seconds 30 1second 35 1 minute 55 30 minutes 130

The internal resistance of the cell as indicated by the above impedancevalues is comparable to commercial lithium-ion batteries, however,without the need for stack pressure. The battery was cycled for 50cycles and maintained coulombic efficiency of greater than 98%.

Example 20

Laminate Battery (2)—PF Electrodes

The anode material and cathode material from examples 17 and 18,respectively, were cut into strips 15 cm by 5 cm. A similar size stripof silica filled PTFE web (Empore™, Minnesota, Mining and Manufacturing,Saint Paul, Minn.) for use as a separator is saturated with a 50% byvolume mixture of isopropyl alcohol and water. The saturated silicafilled PTFE web is passed through the nip of a calendering mill set at agap of 7 mils. This reduced the thickness of the material from about0.023 inches to about 0.011 inches. The anode, separator and cathodelayers were laminated together by passing through the structure throughthe nip of the calendering mill set at a 7 mil gap. The resultinglaminate is 340 microns thick, and the individual layers were notseparable by pulling the layers apart.

A square cell element, 3.3 cm on edge, was cut from the laminate using afresh razor blade. Nickel and aluminum foil current collectors were cut3.1 cm on edge with a tab area extending from one side. Nickel is usedon the anode side of the cell element, and aluminum expanded metal isused on the cathode side. A conductive adhesive made by blending carbonblack (Conductex 975) with a polyethylene latex was painted onto oneside of each foil and allowed to air dry. The current collectors werepositioned appropriately, and a solid PTFE film was placed on eitherside of the electrode laminate/current collector sandwich. The cellstructure was run through a heat laminator to seal the currentcollectors to the respective electrodes via the polyethylene basedconductive adhesive. The outermost solid PTFE films acted as releaseliners.

The resulting cell element was dried at 110° C. for about 3 hours undervacuum in a glove box. Then, in an Argon filled glove box, the cellelement was soaked in a solution of 1 molar lithiumbis(perfluoromethylethyl) sulfonyl imide salt (Minnesota, Mining andManufacturing, Saint Paul, Minn.) in a solvent with 50% by volume eachof ethylene carbonate and dimethyl carbonate. The cell weighed 0.59 gdry and 0.91 g wet with electrolyte. Still inside the glove box, theactivated cell was placed in a glass dish with a cover and connected byway of the protruding current collector tabs to a battery cycler. Theassembled cell was charged to 4.2 volts with 28 mAh of current. Then,the cell was cycled for 20 times between 4.2 volts and 2.75 volts withan average coulombic efficiency of over 98% from cycles 2 to 20.

Example 21

Laminate Battery (3)—PF Electrodes

Anode material from Example 17 was cut into 2 squares 3.3 cm on edge.The two anode squares were painted with a conductive adhesive, asdescribed in Example 25 below, and pressed onto opposite sides of aninterleaving copper foil current collector and dried at 60° C. Cathodematerial, as made in Example 18 except using LiNiO₂ (FMC Corp., BessemerCity, N.C.) as the active material, was cut into 2 squares 3.2 cm onedge. The cathode squares were adhered to an aluminum foil currentcollector as described for the anode squares. A silica filled separatoras described in Example 20 was cut into a square 3.8 cm on edge. Theanode, separator and cathode elements were laminated together to form acell assembly by pressing for 15 seconds at 100 pounds of force betweenplatens heated to 150° C. with a sheet of solid PTFE film on each sideof the cell assembly to act as a release liner.

The resulting cell assembly was dried at 70° for 17 hours under vacuumin a glove box. The cell assembly was then soaked in a 1 molar solutionof lithium bis(perfluoromethylethyl) sulfonyl imide salt in a solventwith 50% by volume each of ethylene carbonate and dimethyl carbonate.The cell weighed 1.00 g dry and 1.28 g wet with electrolyte. Theactivated cell was placed in a glass dish with a cover and connected byway of the protruding current collector tabs to a battery cycler.

The cell was charged to a voltage of 4.0 with 24 mAh of current. Then,the cell was cycled 20 times between 4.0 volts and 2.75 volts with anmeasured, average coulombic efficiency of over 90% between cycles 2 and20. The initial charge of the cell was interrupted for the measurementof impedance at the open circuit with an impedance spectrometer. Theohmic resistance was measured at 4.1 ohms. The cell was compressed usinga clamp, and the ohmic resistance was again found to be 4.1 ohms. Thisexperiment shows that the cell exhibits low internal resistance, whichis not improved by the application of external stack pressure.

Example 22

Laminate Battery (4)—TIPT Electrodes

Anode material, as described in Example 5 except with XP3 petroleum coke(Conoco, Ponca City, Okla.) as the active material, was cut into 2squares 3.3 cm on edge. Cathode material as described in example 1 wascut into two squares 3.2 cm on edge. The anode and cathode squares weresecured to current collectors as described in Example 21 to form anodeand cathode elements. A silica-filed separator as described in Example20 was cut into a square 3.8 cm on edge. The anode, separator andelectrode elements were laminated into a cell assembly by pressing for15 seconds at 100 pounds of force between platens heated to 150° C.

The resulting cell assembly was dried at 70° for 17 hours under vacuumin a glove box. The cell assembly was then soaked in a 1 molar solutionof lithium bis(perfluoromethylethyl) sulfonyl imide salt in a solventwith 50% by volume each of ethylene carbonate and dimethyl carbonate.The cell weighed 0.93 g dry and 1.15 g wet with electrolyte. Theactivated cell was placed in a glass dish with a cover and connected byway of the protruding current collector tabs to a battery cycler. Thecell was charged to a voltage of 4.2 with 8 mAh of current. Then, thecell was cycled 20 times between 4.0 volts and 2.75 volts with anmeasured, average coulombic efficiency of over 90% between cycles 2 and20.

Example 23

Laminate Battery (5)—TIPT Electrodes

To form the anode, a dry blend of 20.31 g MCMB 6-10 carbon (AluminaTrading Co., Park Ridge, N.J.) and 1.07 g of Super S conductive carbon(MMM Carbon, Brussels, Belgium) was prepared by mixing the compoundswith a spatula in a beaker. Portions of the dry blend were addedalternatively along with portions of a total of 28.6 g of mineral oil(Superla® White Mineral Oil No. 31, Amoco) to the mixing chamber of aHaake Rheocord System 40™ equipped with roller blades operating at 50rpm at room temperature. Then, while heating to 270° C., 5.42 g of HDPE(GM 9255 from Fina, now available as grade 1285 from Fina) was addedincrementally and the mixing rate was increased to 100 rpm. After atotal of 30 min. from the beginning of HDPE addition, the mixer wascooled from 270° C. to 230° C. over a period of about 3 min. Then, themixer was opened, and the melt was removed while still hot.

A portion of the solidified melt was placed between 0.007 in. PET coversheets using 0.015 in. shims between the PET sheets in a Carver press at180° C. for 5 min. Then, the press was closed fully using 100 psi for 10sec. The resulting film with PET cover sheets still attached was cooledby immersion into a container of water at room temperature. The filmstill containing oil was about 0.014 in. thick.

The anode films were washed three times for 20 minutes with toluene toremove the oil. Following drying, the anode films were heat treated witha heat gun as described in example 13. Copper EXMET™ (EXMET Corp.,Naugatuck, Conn.) current collectors (cc's) were cut to fit the anodefilms. The heat treated films and corresponding cc's were placed incontact (initial thickness 0.0185 inches) and then calendered asdescribed in Example 9, where the gap in mils was progressively reducedas follows: 18, 17, 15, 13, 11, 9, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 2 (second pass).After calendering, the film/cc composite had a thickness of 0.0115inches.

To form the cathode, a dry blend of 55.63 g LiCoO₂ (FMC Corp.) and 6.18g of VXC72 conductive carbon (Cabot Corp.) was prepared by mixing thecompounds with a spatula in a beaker. Portions of the dry blend wereadded alternatively along with portions of a total of 26.2 g of mineraloil (Superla® White Mineral Oil No. 31, Amoco) to the mixing chamber ofa Haake Rheocord System 40™ equipped with roller blades. Then, whileheating to a set point of 270° C., 5.42 g of HDPE (GM 9255 from Fina,now available as grade 1285 from Fina) was added incrementally. After atotal of 30 min. from the beginning of HDPE addition, the mixer wascooled from 270° C. to 230° C. over a period of about 3 min. Then, themixer was opened, and the melt was removed while still hot.

A portion of the solidified melt was placed between 0.007 in. PET coversheets using 0.015 in. shims between the PET sheets in a Carver press at180° C. Then, the press was closed fully using 200 psi for 10 sec. Theresulting film with PET cover sheets still attached was cooled byimmersion into a container of water at room temperature. The resultantcathode film still containing oil was about 0.009 to 0.010 in. thick.

The cathode films were washed three times for 20 minutes with toluene toremove the oil. The film was about 0.014 in. thick. Following drying,the cathode films were heat treated with a heat gun as described inexample 13. Aluminum EXMET™ (EXMET Corp., Naugatuk, Conn.) currentcollectors were cut to fit the cathode films. The heat treated films andcorresponding cc's were placed in contact (initial thickness 0.010inches) and then calendered as described in Example 9, where the gap inmils was progressively reduced as follows: 10, 9, 7, 5, 3, 2, 2 (secondpass), 1, 1 (second pass). After calendering, the film/collectorcomposite had a thickness of 0.0075 inches.

The separator was prepared as in Example 19. The thickness beforeextraction was 0.0032 inches, and the thickness following extraction was0.002 inches.

The separator was cut into 5 inch×2 inch pieces. The anode and cathodewere cut into 4.5 inch×1.5 inch pieces. The separator was placed betweenthe anode and cathode with the current collectors oriented outward fromthe combination. Excess separator was hanging out on all four sides. Thecombination had a thickness of 0.021 inches. The combination wascalendered twice with the same mill as described in Example 9 at gapsettings of 16.5 mils and 13 mils, respectively. Excellent adhesion wasobserved. The lamination combination could not be delaminated with arazor blade to obtain a distinct, intact layer. The laminatedcombination was placed in a jar containing a mixture of 50% by volumeethylene carbonate and 50% by volume dimethyl carbonate for seven days.The bonding of the laminate was not adversely affected by the solvent.

Example 24

TIPT Anode and Cathode

Heat treated and calendered anodes were produced as described in Example13. The cathode films were produced as described in Example 9. Thecathode films were washed three times for 20 minutes with toluene toremove the oil. Following drying, the cathode films were heat treatedwith a heat gun as described in example 13. The heat treated films werethen calendered as described in Example 9, where the gap in mils wasprogressively reduced as follows: 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 2 (secondpass). After calendering, the film had a thickness of 0.0076 inches.

Three batteries were constructed. The respective anodes had weights of14.3 mg, 14.3 mg and 14.6 mg, and thicknesses of 0.0075 inches, 0.00765inches and 0.0077 inches. The separator was the same as described inExample 13. The electrodes were cut to a diameter of 7.1 mm, and theseparators were cut to diameters of ⅜ inch.

The electrodes and separators were soaked in electrolyte for 20 minutesand assembled soaking wet. The cells were assembled in the followingorder, cathode can, aluminum current collector, cathode, separator,anode, copper current collector, and anode cover.Up to about 10microliters was added based on visual identification of poor wetting.The cells were cycled from 2.6 to 4.2 volts as follows:

Cycles 1-4 0.5 mA/cm² Cycle 5 1 mA/cm² Cycle 6 2 mA/cm² Cycle 7 6 mA/cm²Cycle 8 10 mA/cm² Cycle 9 20 mA/cm² Cycles 10-100 0.5 mA/cm²

Cycles 5-9 involved a rate capacity test. The results of the cycling aredisplayed in FIG. 12.

Example 25

Conductive Adhesive—Bonding of Electrodes with a Current Collector

While mixing in a dispersator, a 31.2 g quantity of Conductex™ 975 wasadded incrementally to 300 g of Zaikthene-N™ (Sietetsu Kagaku Co., Ltd),a polyethylene latex in which the acid groups were neutralized withsodium hydroxide by the manufacturer. After addition was completed, themixture was sheared at about 6000 to about 7000 rpm for about 5 minutes.

A 4.25 cm² rectangle of HDPE cathode was prepared as described inExample 1. The cathode was calendered from an initial thickness of0.0106 inches to 0.006 inches. The calendered electrode was placed incontact with a piece of aluminum foil. The resistance through the twofilms was measured to be 10,000 ohms. Then, some of the conductiveadhesive mixture was brushed onto one side of the foil to form a thinlayer. The adhesive coated side of the foil was placed against the HDPEcathode and pressed firmly into place using the flat end of a steelcylinder and hand pressure. The resulting composite structure was driedin a 60° C. forced air oven for 30 minutes. Adhesion between the foiland electrode film in the composite was found to be good. The resistancethrough the composite was found to be 2000 ohms.

Example 26

SEM Pictures

Representative SEM pictures are displayed in FIGS. 13 and 14 for anodesmade from HDPE. The three micrographs in FIG. 13 provide a comparisonbetween equivalent samples that were calendered only, heat treated onlyor both calendered and heat treated. Similarly, the three micrographs inFIG. 14 provide a comparison between equivalent samples that had noadditional processing, or that were calendered or calendered and heattreated.

The embodiments described above are intended to be representative andnot limiting. Additional embodiments of the invention are within theclaims.

What is claimed is:
 1. An article for use in a battery comprising alaminate, said laminate comprising: (a) a porous, polymeric separatordisposed between a first polymeric electrode and a second polymericelectrode, at least one of said electrodes comprising a porous polymermatrix, where at least one of said electrodes has a resistivity fromabout 200 ohm-cm to about 0.1 ohm-cm; and (b) a lithium saltelectrolyte.
 2. The article of claim 1, wherein said first polymericelectrode and said second polymeric electrode comprise porous polymermatrices.
 3. The article of claim 1, wherein said porous polymer matrixcomprises porous polypropylene, polyethylene,poly(tetrafluoroethylene-co-perfluoro-(propyl vinyl ether)) orpolyvinylidene fluoride.
 4. The article of claim 1, wherein at least oneof said electrodes comprises a porous polymer matrix, said porouspolymer comprising a thermoplastic polymer, electrically conductiveparticles and redox active particles, where said redox active particlesand said electrically conductive particles are chemically distinct. 5.The article of claim 1, wherein said porous polymer matrix comprises apolyolefin.
 6. The article of claim 1, wherein said electrolytecomprises a liquid composition.
 7. The article of claim 1, wherein saidelectrolyte comprises a gel composition.
 8. The article of claim 1,wherein both of said electrodes comprise porous polymer matrices, one ofsaid electrodes comprising a cathode active material and the other ofsaid electrodes comprising an anode active material.
 9. The article ofclaim 1, wherein at least one of said polymeric electrodes comprisesbetween about 2 percent and about 12 percent by weight electricallyconductive particles.
 10. The article of claim 1, further comprising apair of current collectors with one of said current collectors inelectrical contact with each of said electrodes.
 11. A porous, polymerelectrode comprising a polymeric compound and from about 2 percent toabout 15 percent by weight of conducting particles, said electrodehaving a void volume from about 20 percent and about 60 percent, and amaximum pore size of 5 microns.
 12. The porous, polymer electrode ofclaim 11, wherein said electrode comprises a lithium ion-activematerial.
 13. The porous, polymer electrode of claim 11, wherein saidelectrode comprises greater than about 60 percent lithium ion-cathodeactive material.
 14. The porous, polymer electrode of claim 11, whereinsaid electrode comprises greater than about 60 percent lithium ion-anodeactive material.
 15. The porous, polymer electrode of claim 11, furthercomprising a conductive current collector embedded in said porous,polymer composition.
 16. An isolated porous, polymer anode comprising:(a) a porous polymeric matrix; (b) between about 60 percent and about 94percent by weight particles, which comprise an anode active materialcomprising graphite; and (c) greater than about 1 percent by weightelectrically conductive particles, chemically distinct from said anodeactive material.
 17. The porous, polymer anode of claim 16, wherein saidelectrically conductive particles comprise nongraphitic carbon.